COLMAN—COLTON.

commenced, with great reluctance, the study of the law; but the bent of his inclination being towards dramatic composition, he soon gave up the law for pursuits more congenial to his taste. His father having been seized with paralysis in 1785, he was appointed to preside over the Haymarket theatre; and he exercised with zeal and ability the arduous duties of management. However profitable his connection with the theatre was to him for a time, as well after as before the death | of his father, it eventually reduced him, owing, it is believed, to the protracted continuance, and expenses, of a suit in chancery in which he became involved, to become a resident within the "rules" of the King's Bench. But subsequently, through the intercession, it is said, of the duke of York, and the friendship of George IV., the place of licenser and examiner of plays was bestowed upon him, which gave to his latter years leisure with competency. In this office, he did not acquit himself to the satisfaction of every one; being more solicitous to check the violations of morality or decorum in the writings of others, than he had been in his own case.-Mr. | Colman was an extremely prolific writer of plays. Among the best of them may be ranked "Incle and Yarico;" "Ways and Means;" "The Iron Chest;" "The Mountaineers;" "The Poor Gentleman;" “Who wants a Guinea?"; and "John Bull," for which he is said to have received the largest sum of money perhaps ever paid for any drama. He was also the author of three poems, distinguished more by wit than decorum, published under the title of "My Nightgown and Slippers," which he enlarged and republished under the title of "Broad Grins;" of a volume of doggrel called "Poetical Vagaries;" of another, entitled "Vagaries Vindicated;" of another, called "Eccentricities for Edinburgh;" and lastly, of "Random Records," in 2 vols., being memoirs of his early life and times. But Mr. Colman was not only distinguished as a writer; he shone in society by his ready wit. He is described as "the greatest convivialist of the age. The days are yet remembered when Sheridan and he, 'two great ones of the city,' 'were wont to set the table in a 10ar. Sherry led the way, and Punch followed, as Byron has said of them." Mr. Colman died on the 26th of October 1836.

195

COLOMBAT DE L'ISÈRE, an eminent French physician, was born in the commencement of the present century, at Vienne on the river Isère. He He is entitled to especial notice on account of his researches on the subject of stammering, which led him to the discovery of a method of treating it, so successful, that, in an institution established by him in Paris for this purpose, he is stated to have entirely cured 500 individuals in a comparatively short period of time. The essential part of his method consists in a persevering repetition of phrases in a certain rhythmical measure, accompanied by a close attention to the motions of the muscles employed in doing so. He communicated to the world in several publications the results to which he had arrived; and, for these, the Academy of Sciences of Paris awarded to him the Monthyon prize of 5000 francs. The king, too, made him a member of the Legion of Honour. His principal works are his "Traité médicochirurgical des maladies des organes de la voix" (1834); a "Dictionnaire historique et iconographique de toutes les opérations, et des instruments, bandages et appareils, de la chirurgie ancienne et moderne" (2 vols. 1835); and a "Traité des maladies des femmes, et de l'hygiène spéciel de leur sexe" (2 vols. 1838).

COLOMBIA.* The separation of Venezuela from Colombia, in January 1830, led to the resignation of his authority, by Bolivar; whereupon Mosquera was elected to be the president of the latter country. But this change in the administration of the government not having had the effect of quieting the existing discontent, as had been hoped, Mosquera, in his turn, resigned his office, on the 4th of September 1830. The former captain-generalship of Quito declared itself independent, on the 11th of the same month, under the name of the Republic of Equador. What still remained of Colombia was, on the 21st of November following, constituted, by the Congress assembled at St. Fé-de-Bogotà, into the Republic of New Granada. The three new states subsequently entered into engagements to respect each other's independence, to defend one another against the attack of a foreign enemy, and to allow a mutual freedom of trade, without the payment of any duties. The public debt of Colombia, of which the portion contracted in England alone amounted to COLOGNE.* The celebrated cathedral | £6,750,000 sterling, was assumed by the* new states in equitable proportions.

of this city has, for many years, been in progress of completion, at the expense of the king of Prussia.

COLONIZATION SOCIETY.* See Liberia.
COLTON (Charles Caleb), a clergyman,.

vicar of Kew and Petersham, in Surrey, at Edinburgh, in 1820, under his auspices. in England, was a writer of considerable About the same period, he commenced talent, but of eccentric and disreputable lecturing on his now favourite subject. habits. He was educated at Eton, whence After an excursion to Germany, in 1837, he removed to King's College, Cambridge, he made a journey, in 1838, to the United of which he became a fellow. He first States of America, where he also lectured attracted public notice by the publication extensively, and to numerous and intelliof a pamphlet, entitled "A plain and au- gent audiences. In 1842, he again visited thentic Narrative of the Stamford Ghost," Germany; delivering lectures on phrenoin which he attempted to prove that cer- [logy, in the German language, in the tain occurrences which took place at a summer of that year, to large audiences, house near Tiverton, originated in super- in the university of Heidelberg. With his natural agency. He also wrote a poem reception and success here, he was so much on Napoleon, and a satyrical poem under gratified that, after spending the ensuing the title of "Hypocrisy." His best known winter at home, in Edinburgh, he returned and most popular production was "Lacon; to Germany in the spring of 1843.-Beside or Many Things in few Words," published the works already mentioned, Mr. Combe in 1820. A passion for gaming at length is the author of an essay "On Popular involved him in pecuniary difficulties, and Education;" of a treatise "On the Conon his absconding, in 1828, his living was stitution of Man, considered in relation to declared void, and a successor was ap- external objects" (1828); and of "Notes pointed. He then went to America, and on America" (3 vols. 1841).-How far the thence to France, where he became a pro- labours of Mr. Combe may have really confessed gamester. He is said to have gained tributed to extend the belief in phrenology by play at Paris, in two years, no less than as a science, is not a little questionable. £25,000.-In his Lacon is found the fol- In the United States, it would, perhaps, lowing apothegm: "The gamester, if not be far wrong to say, that the subject he die a martyr to his profession, is doubly attracts much less attention to it at the ruined. He adds his soul to every other present day than it did immediately before loss, and by the act of suicide, renounces the visit of Mr. Combe to the country, notearth, to forfeit heaven." Yet it is re- withstanding the large and respectable corded that he blew out his brains, while audiences which, as has been already on a visit to a friend at Fontainebleau, in mentioned, he repeatedly addressed.—Mr. 1832. Combe married, in 1833, a daughter of the celebrated Mrs. Siddons.

COMBE (George), celebrated as a phrenologist, was born October 21st 1788, at Edinburgh, in Scotland, where he studied the law, and practised as an advocate until the year 1837. Gifted with great powers of observation, his attention had been all along, in a certain degree, diverted from his professional pursuits to the natural and physical sciences. He attended, for exam- | ple, Barclay's lectures on Anatomy, and Murray's on Chemistry. In 1816, he became acquainted with Dr. Spurzheim; and, though at first prejudiced against the phrenological opinions of the latter, was induced, by the interesting manner in which they were expounded, to prosecute the subject for himself. He was soon struck with the fact, that the doctrines of Gall and Spurzheim, relative to the structure of the brain, on which they founded their system of phrenology, were the result of the most accurate investigations; and he was eventually led to a conviction of the truth of the new science which they professed to teach. In the year 1819, he published his "Essays on Phrenology;" and, in 1824, his "System of Phrenology." The first phrenological society was formed

COMBE (Abraham), an elder brother of the former, born at Edinburgh, January 15th 1785, was a sugar refiner, first in Glasgow, and afterwards in his native city. In 1820, having made the acquaintance of Robert Owen, then residing at New Lanark, where he had an extensive cotton factory, Mr. Combe was led to adopt his peculiar social and philanthropic views, and resolved to devote himself, as well as the greater part of his property, thenceforth, wholly to aid in carrying them into practice. A "Co-operative Society," established by him in Edinburgh, although promising fairly at first, proved, before long, a failure. In no wise discouraged, he commenced, in 1825, in conjunction with several of his socialist friends, another experiment of a like nature, but on a more extensive scale, at Orbiston, about 9 miles from Glasgow. He, however, did not live long to witness its progress, having died in August 1827.

COMBE (Andrew), a younger brother of the preceding, distinguished as a physician, and a medical writer, was born October 27th 1797. In 1835, he was ap

the comet's passage in 1832, been a month in advance of its actual place, it would have passed through, or very near, the comet.

pointed physician to king Leopold, of Bel- | coincidence, nearly intersects that of the gium, -a situation, however, which he earth; and had the earth, at the time of was obliged to resign in the following year, on account of the infirm state of his health. Among the works of which he is the author, may be mentioned his “Observations on Mental Derangement” (1841); the "Principles of Physiology applied to the Conservation of Health" (1834); the "Physiology of Digestion considered with relation to the principles of Dietetics" (1836); and a "Treatise on the Physiological and Moral Management of Infancy" (1840).

COMET.* The reappearace of Halley's comet in 1835, was expected with great interest. Its perturbations in the previous revolution were calculated by Damoiseau and Pontécoulant, in France, and by Rosenberger, in Germany; and the time of its perihelion passage fixed for the month of November in that year. Damoiseau's calculation gave the 4th, Pontécoulant's the 7th, and Rosenberger's the 3d of the month. The comet, true to its appointed laws, became visible about the end of August, in the part of the heavens predicted; and it appears, from the comparison of the numerous observations that were made of it, to have actually passed the perihelion on the 16th of November. The position of its orbit was such that it could scarcely be seen in Europe after the passage, on account of its proximity to the horizon; but it was then caught by the astronomers of the southern hemisphere, and continued to be observed by Sir John Herschell, at the Cape of Good Hope, till the end of March 1836, when its increasing distance from the earth rendered it invisible.-The opinion that an etherial medium pervades the regions of space, of sufficient density to affect the motions of comets, though so rare as to offer no sensible resistance to the denser masses of the planets, whose periods of revolution have continued exactly the same since the epoch of the first astronomical observations, seems to be gaining ground. Its existence, indeed, seems alone competent to explain the observed acceleration of Encke's comet in its orbit. But it follows that, if this medium really exists, the comet must ultimately fall into the sun, unless it is dissipated altogether; an event which seems not improbable from the fact of its having been less conspicuous at each reappearance.-Biela's comet is small, has no tail, and presents no appearance of a solid nucleus, but only a slight increasing density towards the centre; and small stars were seen through it. Its orbit, by a singular

COMMANDITE, a species of partnership in use in France, where one of the partners only is responsible to the whole extent of the debts contracted; the others being liable only to the amount of the portions of capital contributed by them. These are styled commanditaires, and are not permitted to control in the slightest degree the business of the partnership. Every such partnership, before commencing its operations, is required by law to publish the amount of the capital at its disposal, the time it is to endure, the general nature of its business, &c.

COMMUNEROS, a secret political association, which, in the year 1821, grew in Spain out of the society of the Freemasons. Their opinions were an exaggeration of those entertained by the latter. Not satisfied with the re-establishment of the constitutional monarchy, they indulged in speculations, or dreams, concerning liberty and equality, and the sovereignty of the people in Spain. They were, in short, in a fair way of attempting to act over again, in that country, the part of the early revolutionists of France, when their career was cut short by the French invasion of 1823. The ministry of Florez, which directed the public affairs at the termination of the constitutional government, may be regarded, in a certain degree, as the organ of their political sentiments; it was, at least, the only ministry which had met with their support. After the restoration of the absolute monarchy, the society of the communeros was proscribed, under very severe penalties.

COMORN, a strongly fortified town of Hungary, at the confluence of the Danube and the Waag, about 46 miles W. N. W. of Buda. Its favourable situation, in respect to trade, has caused its population to increase from 9300, which it was in 1805, to 17,500, exclusive of the garrison. It has manufactures of woollen cloths, tanneries, &c., and considerable trade in corn, wine, honey, fish, and timber, by the Danube.

COMTE (François Charles Louis) was born, August 25th 1782, at St. Enimie, in the French department of the Lozère, and had already acquired a reputation as a lawyer (avocat) at the period of the first restoration (1814). He was conspicuous among those who then sought, by every

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COMTE-CONCHOLOGY.

CONCEPTION* was formerly a flourishing town, containing several good buildings, and as many as 20,000 inhabitants. It suffered considerably in the late wars; and, in 1835, was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake. Its population, at present, does not exceed 10,000.

legislative means, to oppose the reactionary | ing, at length, to Paris, he endeavoured, measures of the government. His defence but without success, to be reinstated as an of General Excelmans, in 1815, acquired for advocate at the French bar. Then came him, in a high degree, the respect of the the revolution of July, when he was apliberal party; and he thenceforth was in- pointed "Procureur du roi" (attorney-geduced to devote himself mainly to politics.neral). This office, however, which was In company with his friend Dunoyer, he little in harmony with his political views, commenced the publication of a periodical he held only for a short time. He was, journal, in numbers consisting of 20 subsequently, a member of the chamber of sheets; those of smaller dimensions being deputies; and, as such, voted with the subjected to a censorship. This journal opposition. He died in the month of April was styled "Le censeur, ou examen des 1837.-The most important of his works actes et des ouvrages qui tendent à dé- is his "Traité de législation, ou exposition truire ou à consolider la constitution de des lois générales suivant lesquelles les l'état." The editors were, before long, peuples prospèrent, dépérissent ou restent involved in difficulties with the police, by stationnaires" (4 vols. 1827). whom they were accused of a design, in their opposition to the existing government, of playing into the hands of the Bonapartists. That such an accusation was altogether groundless, became speedily apparent from the fact, that only three days previous to the entrance of Napoleon into Paris, after his return from the island CONCHOLOGY.* This term, as generally of Elba, Comte put forth a pamphlet, enti- employed, is applied to that branch of natled "De l'impossibilité d'établir une mo- tural history which treats of animals pronarchie constitutionelle sous un chef mili- vided with testaceous coverings, though, as taire, et particulièrement sous Napoléon." stated in the first part of this work, it proDuring the hundred days, Napoleon at- perly designates only a knowledge of the tempted in vain to enlist the author in his shells themselves, without reference to the cause. The latter declined every office animal contained in them, and hence is that was offered him, as well as the prof improper in the present state of the scifered editorship of the "Moniteur uni- ence; but it would lead to no good purpose versel," the official journal of the imperial to attempt to substitute for it the more apgovernment. On the second restoration propriate designation of Conchyliology, or of the Bourbons, similar prosecutions with that of Malacology, proposed by Blainthose to which he had before been subject- ville.-The animals in question form the ed, were instituted against him; and, on class Mollusca of Cuvier. They are thus account of an article in his journal, then | defined by Blainville. Symmetrical anipublished under the title of the "Censeur mals, whose body and its appendages are européen," he was condemned to be im- soft, not articulated, and covered by a skin prisoned for a year, and to pay a consider- or mantle of a variable form, on or within able fine. In the mean while, through the which is, most generally, a calcareous coactive support received by him from the vering (the shell), formed of one or more liberal party, and more particularly from pieces. The circulation is complete, the General Lafayette, he was enabled to blood white, the heart aortic. The respitransform his journal into a daily paper, ration is either aquatic or aerial. The which, in 1820, was united with the nervous system is composed of a brain-like "Courrier français." A judicial sentence ganglion, situate below or around the passed upon him, to which he was unwill- esophagus, and communicating with the ing to subject himself, led to an exile nerves of function; those of locomotion from his country of five years' duration. being lateral.". Molluscous animals, as He was hospitably received, first at Ge- thus defined, are essentially soft, though neva, and next at Lausanne, where he was in some cases they are somewhat hard or appointed to the professorship of Natural coriaceous externally; but in general they Law. Here, however, not finding himself are almost gelatinous, and rapidly decomat his ease, in consequence of the intrigues pose after death. Their colour is usually of the French police to render him an ob- pale, or of a yellowish or dirty white, and ject of suspicion to the authorities of the opaque, but some present the most vivid "Pays de Vaud," he quitted Switzerland, tints, or are almost transparent. Their in 1823, and went to England; in which form is exceedingly varied. Their encountry he remained 18 months. Return-velope, or mantle, is sometimes closely

adapted to and connected with the body, | when many, multivalve.-Univalve shells sometimes is partially free and expanded present two principal modifications of form, into processes of different shapes, or again, the cone and the cylinder; these may be as in most bivalve shells, it is attached to long or short, single or combined, thus the body only at a few points, and forms giving rise to an infinite variety of shapes, two large leaves which enfold the body. especially when, as is constantly the case, This mantle is muscular and very con- there are superadded numerous minor diftractile, sometimes soft, but often hard and ferences as regards the size and developcoriaceous, forming in many cases the only ment of the lip, the existence or absence external protection to the animal, when it of processes, &c. In many of this great is said to be naked; or it may secrete a group of shells there is often to be found more or less calcareous substance called another part of great importance; this is shell, as an additional defence. Such is a corneous or calcareous lid or door affixed the case in the larger proportion of the to the animal, by means of which, when Mollusca. This shell may be external or withdrawn into the shell, it is enabled to internal, rudimentary or perfect. The close the opening; this is called the opermantle, as said above, varies considerably culum, and may be complete or incomin form: sometimes it is in the shape of a plete, that is, closing the mouth of the flat shield covering the back; sometimes it shell, either entirely or only partially.is in two lobes which meet at their edges, The construction of bivalve shells is so as to appear like a bag; or these lobes widely different. In them there is, it is may be perfectly united, except at certain true, a faint attempt towards the spiral in openings, for the passage of the excretions each of the valves, as is shown in the conor of certain organs; or, finally, it may pre-volution of the beaks in some species; sent free edges, which are either single or but, in general, they may be considered as variously lobed or fringed. It is to the two more or less concave bodies united tomantle that the animal owes its colour, gether by a hinge or ligament, or both. and to it also the shell owes its origin. Sometimes, but rarely, there are accessory This shell is composed of animal and cal- pieces or imperfect valves, to aid in the careous matters, united in different pro- protection of the animal.-In multivalve portions in different species. It is formed shells, the different portions are connected by a successive deposit of layers, one together by the mantle of the animal, as within the other, the most recent and in- in the Chitons, which are the only true ternal projecting somewhat beyond the multivalve mollusca; the Cirripoda, geneothers, thus increasing the size of the shell rally included in this class, belonging to in a sensible but gradual manner. Ac- the Articulata. Almost all shells, whether cording to the mode of deposit, these lay- univalve, bivalve, or multivalve, are proers may be lamellar, fibrous, or compact; tected externally by an animal membrane almost every group of Molluscous animals of different thickness, consistence, &c., differing in this respect, as has been shown according to the species; this membrane by the experiments of Dr. Carpenter. is called the epidermis. When the shell Most shells are hard, compact and opake, is internal, it is always wanting; and its but at the same time brittle; in these the presence or absence is therefore a guide calcareous portion is greater than the ani- in the determination of its character in mal. On the other hand, some are thin, this respect. The shell is always connectfragile and translucent, or even in some ed to the animal by a muscular attachcases flexible and corneous; here the ani- ment, where they are external; where mal matter predominates over the calca- this is not the case, they are merely kept reous, which may be wholly wanting; this in place by the folds of the mantle. The is more peculiarly the case in those spe- place of attachment of these muscles is cies which float on the surface of the sea, always visible on the shell, and is known and are not exposed to the accidents to under the name of muscular impression: which the more littoral ones are subjec ed.] and the number, form, and situation of This deficiency of calcareous matter is these is of much importance in determinalmost universal in all internal shells, as ing to what group the animal belongs. In the mantle serves as a sufficient covering | to protect them from injury. The forms of shells are almost infinite, but they may be classed in a few great divisions. Thus they are composed of one or more pieces called valves; when there is but one they are termed univalve; when two, bivalve;

bivalve shells, besides the imprint left by the muscles, there is often a more or less marked line extending around the shell, just within the margin; this is the palleal impression, resulting from the adherence of the mantle at this place to the shell.

Molluscous animals may be divided into