the officers of the government, heretofore | out of the public treasury.-The following possessed of the franking privilege, relat- table shows the number of post-offices, the ing to the business of their respective amount of postage paid to postmasters, offices, are to be paid for out of the con- expense of transporting the mail, extent tingent fund provided for their offices, or in miles of post-roads, &c. POTTER (Louis Joseph Antoine de) was born at Bruges, in the Netherlands, on the 26th of April 1786. During a residence at Rome and in Tuscany, he collected materials for the works which he completed after his return to Brussels, in 1817. He became known by his "Esprit de l'Église," and by several other publications in which he attacked the pope and the Roman Catholic church. His Life of Scipio de Ricci (1825, 3 vols.) especially attracted in a considerable degree the public attention. In 1828, he placed himself at the head of an association to which the principal "collaborateurs" of the Courrier des Pays-Pas belonged; and he began, in the columns of that journal, a systematic opposition to the government. An article written by him, and in which he animadverted severely on the exceptional law which gave to the ministers the power of punishing arbitrarily the authors of libels against the government, and another on the banishment of two young Frenchmen who published a journal that was regarded as too independent and liberal in its character, led to his being condemned to 18 months' imprisonment, and to pay a fine of a thousand florins. From this time M. de Potter, from having been an avowed enemy of the Catholic church, became the leader of the party in opposition to the government, formed by the union of the republicans and the Roman Catholics. His Projet d'association pour réaliser les libertés écrites dans la loi fondamentale des Pays-Bas," published in the "Courrier," led to his banishment (April 30th 1830) from the country for 8 years. M. de Potter was at Aix-la-Chapelle when he received the intelligence of the French revolution of July; he immediately wrote to the king of the Netherlands, advising him to profit, before it should be too late, | by the lessons taught by that extraordinary POUILLET (Claude Servais Mathias) was 496 POUILLET-PRESBURG. at the same time the chair of Physics. He succeeded Dulong in 1831, as professor of Physics in the Polytechnic School; but this professorship he very soon resigned, on account of the delicate state of his health. At the end of the year just mentioned, however, he was invited to perform the functions of "professeur administrateur” in the “Conservatoire des arts et métiers." He was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1837.-M. Pouillet is the author of a number of memoirs on physical subjects, the most important of which are:-1. A memoir on the coloured rings which are formed by the reflection of light at the second surface of thick metallic laminæ (1816). 2. A memoir on certain newly discovered facts relating to heat (1822). 3. Two memoirs on the electro-magnetic phenomena (1822-27). 4. A memoir on the solar heat (1824). 5. Two memoirs on the electricity of elastic fluids, and on the source of the electricity of the atmosphere (1825). 6. A memoir on the determination of thermo-electric currents, and on a new method of determining the magnetic intensity of the earth. 7. A memoir on the temperatures at which different substances lose their magnetical properties, and on a relation which seems to exist between the magnetic appearances exhibited by these substances and the number of their constituent atoms (1829).-He has also published a "Traité de physique et de météorologie” (1825-30). condition of the countries which he described, and in the preparation of which the author profited largely, without any acknowledgment, by the labours of former travellers. He partly recast it in his Histoire de la régénération de la Grèce, comprenant le précis des événements depuis 1740" (1825, 4 vols.). He is the author, besides, of the "Histoire de la Grèce" in the Univers pittoresque; of several memoirs in the collection of the Academy of Inscriptions; and of numerous articles in the public journals.-M. Pouqueville died at Paris in 1838. POUQUEVILLE (François Charles Hugues Laurent) was born in 1770, at Merlerault, in the French department of the Orne. After prosecuting his studies at Caen, he went to Paris to attend the lectures on medicine of the celebrated Dubois, whom he afterwards accompanied in the expedition to Egypt. The vessel which conveyed him, on his return to France, was captured by a Barbary corsair. He was taken to the Morea, and subjected to a severe imprisonment of ten months at Tripolitza. He was then removed to Constantinople, and there confined for two years in the castle of the Seven Towers. Restored at length to liberty, he returned to Paris in 1801, and took his degree of M. D. In 1805, appeared his "Voyage en Morée, à Constantinople, etc." (3 vols.) Napoleon appointed him consul at Janina, where he resided near the famous Ali Pacha, until the year 1815. He was then transferred to Patras; which post he quitted in 1817. In 1820-22, he published his "Voyage en Grèce" (5 vols.), a work which owed its success in part to the existing political Pozzo DI BORGO* continued to reside at Paris, as the ambassador of Russia, until the year 1835, when he was appointed to take the place of Prince Lieven, as Russian ambassador in England. This removal of Pozzo from Paris to London has been attributed by some simply to the desire of the government at St. Petersburgh to have at the time a representative well skilled in all the arts of diplomacy at the court of St. James, and by others has been regarded as a sort of disgrace inflicted on him, by withdrawing him, contrary to his own inclination, from an official position and a place of residence to which he had become familiar, and which he had, indeed, come to look upon as his home for life. Accordingly, he remained in Eng land little more than two years. He re signed his embassy in 1837, and returned to spend the remnant of his days, as a private individual, in the metropolis of France. He died there on the 15th of February 1842. PRADT.* This fertile but superficial writer was, in November 1827, elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies from Clermont. He sat on the côté gauche until April 1828, when, dissatisfied with the little respect shown to his opinions, and despairing to make a prominent figure as a practical politician, he resigned his seat, and once more endeavoured to make himself conspicuous by his pen. duced, in 1830, “Un chapitre sur la légitimité;" in 1832, "De la presse et du journalisme;" in the same year, "Du refus général de l'impôt;" in 1834, "De l'esprit actuel du clergé français," &c. All these, however, made very little impression on the public mind.-M. de Pradt died of an attack of apoplexy, March 18th 1837. He pro PRESBURG.* Population in 1837 (exclusive of the garrison), 37,380.-The hall of the diet, or Landhaus, is a plain, unpretending edifice, both externally and internally. The two chambers, which constitute the Hungarian Diet, meet in apart PRESBURG-PRUSSIA. 497 Greek church, at 1278; of Mennonists, at 14,495; and of Jews, at 183,154. In Pierer's "Universal-Lexikon" (2d ed.), the population of the entire monarchy was es ments furnished simply with long tables, round which are benches for the members, who speak, as in the British Parliament and the legislative bodies of the United States, from their places, and not, as intimated to amount, at the close of the year France, from a tribune. The members attend the Diet armed, in full national costume; and, since 1835, the debates have not been carried on in Latin, but in the Hungarian language. — Presburg is the residence of the archbishop of Gran, who is primate of Hungary. It has a Roman Catholic academy, and a Calvinistic lyceum, both possessing good libraries; a Catholic gymnasium, a Catholic theological seminary, a college for poor students, and various other public schools. A fine library, belonging to count Appony, is open to the public. PRESTON.* The population of this town nas rapidly augmented. In 1831, it amounted to 33,871; and in 1841, to 50,073. It is not only one of the principal seats of the cotton manufacture of Great Britain, but it has an extensive manufacture of linen cloth, with numerous tanneries, iron foundries, and establishments for making machinery and other articles. There is also a fishery on the Ribble, which abounds with salmon, smelts, and eels.There is an institution in Preston for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, which has a library of about 2500 volumes, and an excellent museum. Several libraries, besides, are open to all classes of the public. PRINCE is a title varying very much in its signification in different countries. In England it is applied only to members of the royal family; and in no case, except that of the eldest son of the reigning monarch (prince of Wales), is it connected with a territorial distinction. In France, under the old régime, the title belonged only to certain families of high distinction, connected with the royal blood. It ranks in Germany below that of duke. PROFESSOR is the recognised title, in all universities, of the public and authorized teachers in the various faculties. PRONY.* This eminent mathematician and natural philosopher died at Paris in the year 1839, at a very advanced age. * PRUSSIA. The population of Prussia in 1837, exclusive of the canton of Neufchatel in Switzerland, was, according to Berghaus, 13,884,109. Of this number, 3,614,644 resided in the towns; and the rural population amounted to 10,269,465. The same author states the number of Protestants at 8,449,867; of Roman Catholics, at 5,235,315; of members of the VOL. XIV.-63 1844, to somewhat more than 15,500,000 persons. - Agriculture has of late years very much improved. Rye, which, with potatoes, constitutes the principal food of the poorer classes, is the grain most extensively cultivated. Large quantities of flax and hemp are raised; also chicory and beets, which last yield about a fourth part of the sugar consumed. Tobacco, hops, and madder, are likewise cultivated; and. wine is made in the Rhenish districts. In 1837, the number of horses in the kingdom was 1,472,901; cattle, 4,838,622; sheep, 15,011,452; goats, 327,525; and hogs, 1,936,304. Of the sheep, 3,617,469 were pure merinos, and 7,165,088 half-bred: these fine kinds are principally in the provinces of Saxony, Silesia, and Brandenburg; and their wool forms the great staple of the kingdom. The small occupiers of land are for the most part proprietors; the larger owners generally cultivate their estates through stewards.-The Prussian monarchy is richer in minerals than might have been anticipated from the general flatness of its surface. Iron is the most generally diffused. It is very extensively wrought in Silesia, principally on account of the crown, but also by private individuals. The iron-works in the Rhenish provinces, near Dortmund, Solingen, Iserlohn, &c., and those near Schmiedeberg, Tarnowitz, Sprottau, &c., in Silesia, are very extensive. Coal is very abundant in the Rhenish provinces, Saxony, and parts of Silesia, and large quantities are annually produced. Salt, which is a government monopoly, is produced chiefly in Saxony, which province also yields considerable quantities of copper, and some silver. Silesia furnishes annually large quantities of zinc, lead, and tin; but the lastmentioned metal is partly, too, supplied by Brandenburg. Amber is principally found along the low narrow tongue of land between the Curische Haff and the Baltic Sea.-The most important manufacturing district of Prussia, and probably of the European continent, is in the Rhenish province, on the Wupper, having Elberfeld and Solingen for its principal towns. It is well supplied with coal and waterpower; and the inhabitants are distinguished for their ingenuity and industry. The population of Elberfeld has increased during the present century from 11,720 to 38,162; and the progress of many of Many nego the other towns and villages in the vicinity | of England, and great distress was prohas been hardly less remarkable. Large duced, particularly in the Rhenish proquantities of silk and cotton goods, linens, vinces, which had, at the same time, the &c., are manufactured in this district. vast markets of France withdrawn from Linens are also made for exportation in them by their transfer from that power to and around Hirschberg in Silesia, in West- Prussia. Influenced partly by the disconphalia, and in Ermeland in E. Prussia. tent of these provinces, and partly by the Very superior broadcloth is made at Eu- exclusion of all her leading staples, except pen, Malmédy, Berlin, Aix-la-Chapelle, wool, from the markets of Great Britain, &c. The articles of hardware, cutlery, Prussia, in 1818, issued a new tariff, which &c., made at Iserlohn, Hagen, Solingen, raised the duties on the imports into her Olpe, Essen, &c., enjoy a high reputation; dominions. This new tariff, however, but are inferior to the cast-iron articles, though amply protective to her own subwhether of fancy, ornament, or utility, jects, aggravated the difficulties of the maproduced at Berlin. These, as regards nufacturers of the smaller German states, beauty and delicacy of execution, are un- whose products it excluded, and who also, equalled by any made either in England shut out from France and Austria, and or any other country. Porcelain, jewelle- having their internal trade impeded by ry, watches, coaches, &c., are largely pro- numerous and conflicting customs and duced at Berlin and other towns. Beer is transit regulations, were now each nearly extensively brewed in all parts; and the confined to the narrow limits of their reconsumption of spirits is estimated at the spective domestic markets. The distressvery extraordinary amount of 45,000,000 ed manufacturers naturally sought a remegallons a year. Vast quantities of books dy for these evils; and in 1819 an associaannually issue from the presses of Berlin tion was formed at Nuremberg, which, by and Halle. The external commerce of its numbers and activity, succeeded in the kingdom is likewise considerable, and forcing the subject upon the attention of rapidly increasing; though, since the esta- the German governments. blishment of the Customs' Union, its amount tiations took place: at length, in 1827, a cannot be ascertained. It extends to al- Customs' Union was formed between Wurmost all parts of Europe, and to America; temberg and Bavaria; next followed the but the chief intercourse is with the other treaty between Prussia and Hesse, in 1828; German states, Great Britain, Russia, Swe- and about the same time, a third union, the den, Denmark, and the Netherlands. The Mittel Verein, took place between Saxony, imports embrace sugar, coffee, cotton wool, Hanover, and some minor states. twist and stuffs, and English manufactures former two were soon united by the exerof various kinds, dyeing substances, spices, tions of Prussia; through whose influence wines, salt, and coals. The exports con- likewise several states were detached sist principally of raw produce, mostly from the Mittel Verein, which was aftercorn, wool, timber, zinc, flax, of hams and wards dissolved. And in 1833, nearly the salted provisions, and bristles; the manu- whole of the members of these unions factured exports are chiefly linens, wool- were associated into one great league, the lens, hardware, jewellery, watches, wooden Zollverein, which came into operation clocks, Prussian blue, spirits, and beer. January 1st 1834; and which, being joined The Prussian or German Customs' Union, in 1835 by Nassau and Baden, in 1836 or Zollverein, has for its object to assimi- by Frankfort,-in 1841 by Brunswick and late, unite, and simplify, the fiscal arrange- Lippe-Schaumburg,-and in 1842 by Luxments of the numerous states of Germany. emburg, now comprises the whole of Though it naturally arose out of the ad- Germany, except the parts subject to Ausvancing civilization of that country, it de- tria, Hanover, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, rived its immediate origin partly from the Holstein, and the Hanse Towns. By the circumstances resulting from the European convention of the Zollverein, all restricFor a series of years prior to 1814, tions to communication and transit are the “continental system" of Napoleon, and removed, internal custom-houses abolished, other hostile obstructions, by nearly ex- and a common system and collection of cluding British merchandise, had the effect export, import, and transit duties, establishof creating and extending manufactures ed, to be levied at the exterior boundaries in every part of Germany. None of the of the frontier states, and divided among tariffs of the different states being then the members of the league according to prohibitory, except that of Austria, their their population. A common system of manufactures became exposed, on the re- weights and measures was to be provided turn of peace, to the crushing competition | for; and it was agreed that there should war. The 20,660,864 Raw materials, and materials serving | conferred a vast benefit on the people of the ends of agriculture and manufactures, Germany. Of the different members of are admitted into the states of the Zoll- the Zollverein, Saxony is that which, on verein without any, or with very low duties. the whole, has profited most by the league; Thus, raw cotton, wool, coal, pig-iron, ores, for in that country, manufacturing indusraw hides and skins, potashes, turpentine, try having been previously most developed, chalk, rags, manure, earths, black lead, it had the vantage ground in competing wood, seed, and such like articles, are ex- with the others; and new and extensive empt from duty; and low rates are imposed markets were opened to her, and at the on twist and yarn, metals in the earlier same time closed to a great extent against progress of manipulation, and all articles foreign rivals. Frankfort on the Maine is to which more labour is to be applied. that which has experienced the least beBut the duties press heavily, or rather nefit from the league. Prussia, though prohibitorily, on articles entering into com- the leading and most zealous member, is, petition with the manufactures of Germa- in a financial view, situated less advanny, which are generally of a coarse heavy tageously than she would have been, had kind. This is effected by the imposition her independent tariff been continued ; of a fixed rate on the weight of the goods many of her protected classes have like. imported, without any reference to quali- wise suffered from the competition of Sax ty or fluctuation of prices; so that it falls ony. This has led to a very general im· lightest on fine goods, and heaviest on the pression that the ostensible object of the common kinds. Estimated ad valorem, Zollverein is not the only motive which the duty on cotton varies in this way from has influenced that power, but that it has 31 to 120 per cent., and on woollens from been in a certain degree influenced by 20 to 50 per cent. The necessary opera- political views, extending beyond the inte tion of this system is the exclusion from rests of the present day, and tending to the markets of almost all the commoner its own aggrandizement. Indeed, political articles of foreign manufacture, that is, of consequences of the greatest importance all those largely consumed in Germany, cannot fail to arise from the external relafor which a complete monopoly has been tions of the league; since whatever so created in favour of the home producer. completely unites the interests of different One of the articles of the convention bodies of people, must combine their policonstituting the Zollverein, and the men- ey, their diplomacy, and, in the event of tion of which ought not to be omitted danger, their strength. — Considering the here, is that the tolls, or other charges in extent of sea-coast possessed by Prussia, lieu thereof, shall, in all cases, whether and the facilities for ship-building, the they belong to the public or to private in- shipping is not very considerable. dividuals, be limited to the sums required 1838, there were 604 ships, in burden to keep the roads in a proper state of re- 73,696 lasts, of 4000 lbs. each. Stettin has pair; and that the tolls existing in Prussia the largest amount of shipping, and next shall be considered as the highest that are to it Dantzick. Prussia has entered into to be levied, and shall not in any case be reciprocity treaties with most foreign powexceeded. This arrangement alone hasers.-The "Prussian State Bank" issues In |