stricted throughout the Sandwich islands, - that a suitable piece of ground should be allotted for the erection upon it of a Catholic church, and that, as a pledge of his good faith, the king (Tamehameha III.) should deposit in the hands of the

the Italian of Politian; "Yamoyden, a 'Tale of the Wars of King Philip," a poem in 6 cantos, the joint production of Mr. Sands and the Rev. James Wallis Eastburn; and a number of minor pieces, concluding with the lines entitled "The Dead of 1832," which appeared in the Commer-representative of the French government cial Advertiser only about a week before the death of Mr. Sands.

the sum of $20,000,- and all this under the penalty of an immediate attack on the town, in case of refusal. These conditions were, however, accepted, and a new treaty formed between the parties, under the safeguard of which the Catholic missionaries have since carried on their operations without being disturbed.

SANTA AÑA.* See Mexico, (Sup.) SANTANDER* (General) died at Carthagena, in New Grenada, in 1840.

SARAGOSSA.* Present population of this city estimated at 43,000. A university was founded here on the expulsion of the Moors in 1118, but was not incorporated till 1474: it was well attended at the close of the last century, but is now comparatively deserted. Among the other establishments, may be mentioned a royal economic society, with professors of chemistry and agriculture, botany, rural eco|nomy, &c.; a royal academy of the fine arts, a public library, and a monte de piedad; together with 5 hospicios, or public almshouses, one of which, the Casa de Misericordia, has accommodation for 700 sick and aged persons of both sexes, and another affords a refuge for upwards of 1000 orphans and foundlings.

SANDWICH ISLANDS.* Honolulu, in the island of Oahu, is the capital of this group of islands, and has a population of about 6500. Some of the houses are built of stone; but the natives still prefer living in their huts, so that the town has a very irregular appearance. The principal public building, we are told, is the "English school," in which instruction in English reading and writing is given to children of both sexes: SAPAN WOOD; a dye-wood similar to there are, also, 2 churches, numerous board- Brazil-wood, but containing much less coing-houses, and many well-stocked shops. louring matter. It is the product of a The harbour (formed by a barrier-reef of thorny tree, a species of Cæsalpina, indicoral, having a single opening) has accom-genous to S. India, Siam, Pegu, and the modation for between 60 and 70 vessels Eastern Islands. of 500 tons. In 1831, there belonged to the islands 14 ships of 2630 tons, of which 4 brigs and 7 sloops were the property of the natives; and in 1836, from the 1st of July to the 13th of December, there were 154 arrivals at the port, of which 80 were brigs and schooners belonging to the country, 56 from the United States, and 17 from England. The government has negotiated commercial treaties on a liberal footing with the United States, England, and France. The Protestant missionaries, from the United States chiefly, have continued their labours of late years, with great zeal and success; and we are also informed that the Catholic missionaries have likewise been very active. The latter reported the number of their converts to have amounted, in 1842, to no less than SARDINIA. The population of the king10,000. The history of their introduction dom of Sardinia, according to a census into these islands is somewhat remarkable. taken in 1838, was as follows:- Savoy, In a treaty, concluded between the king 564,150; Turin, 873,300; Coni, 566,200; and M. Dupetit-Thouars, in 1837, it was Alexandria, 595,600; Novara, 542,700; stipulated that all Frenchmen, who should Nice, 230,000; Aosta, 78,100; Genoa, arrive in the dominions of the former, 675,000; Island of Sardinia, 524,600; toshould be equally protected, and should tal, 4,650,350. — The island of Sardinia, enjoy the same advantages and privileges, though exceeded by few regions in natuwith the most favoured nations. Never- ral fertility, is at present the least valuatheless, when, not long afterwards, the Ca- ble portion of the kingdom; both the countholic missionaries made their appearance, try and the population being, from a vathey were not permitted to address them- riety of causes, still in a semi-barbarous selves to the people, but even ordered to state. There is, however, a surplus of quit the islands. In consequence of this corn for exportation; the chief other proproceeding, a French frigate presented ducts being wine, skins, linseed, flax, oliveitself at the port of Honolulu in 1839, the oil, wool, and barilla. The fisheries on commander of which demanded, in the the coast are of some importance, particuname of the king of the French, that the larly those of coral and tunnies. - Of the Roman Catholic worship should be unre-continental part of the kingdom, the most

important and fertile portion is Piedmont, | sels. - Notwithstanding the absolute naconsisting of the upper basin of the Po, ture of the government, it has constantly from which and its affluents, the country, aimed at restraining the extravagant prithough naturally parched by heat, is so vileges of the nobility, clergy, and corpoextensively and skilfully irrigated, that it rations, and enlarging the rights and imyields a surplus of corn, cattle, French munities of its subjects. So long ago as beans, and hemp: its chief other products 1729, it abolished nearly the whole system are wine, fruit, and, above all, silk of the of feudal authority and personal service, finest quality. Savoy, separated from Pied-leaving scarcely any but honorary privimont by the Alps, is a poor hilly country; leges in force. It then also limited the and the narrow maritime districts of Genoa rights of primogeniture and entail, and and Nice, divided from Piedmont by the consequently gave greater scope to the Apennines, are also hilly and rocky, but free cultivation of the soil; and diminished have a south aspect highly favourable for the powers of the clergy, more particularly the olive. The mineral wealth of these that of investing land in mortmain. The territories has been little explored. Iron, king is assisted in his administration by lead, copper, and other metals are said to five ministers, or secretaries of state, for abound; and marble and alabaster are both the Interior, War and Marine, Finance, plentiful and largely exported. There are Justice, and Foreign Affairs; and by a some iron-works; but the principal manu- council of state, consisting of a president, factures are those of silk, velvets, and 14 ordinary, and an unlimited number of hosiery, mostly consumed in Italy, coarse extraordinary members. In 1838, a new woollens and linens, canvass, cables, paper, code of laws for the Sardinian states was glass, and works of art. The maritime adopted, which, though an improvement commerce of the Sardinian states centres on the heterogeneous code it replaced, exin Gcnoa, which, besides being the great hibits some glaring defects. Among others, seat of their export and import trade, is the use of torture is retained in certain the channel through which much of the cases; the most arbitrary means are used foreign trade of Switzerland and other to extend the Roman Catholic religion; neighbouring countries passes, and is, next and Jews are subjected to the most illibeto Leghorn, the chief entrepôt for the com- ral restrictions.-There is a rigid censormerce of the Mediterranean generally; to ship of the press; and foreign books pay which facilities are afforded by the aboli- an oppressively high duty. The Sardinian tion of transit dues on goods passing government has, nevertheless, of late through the states, low duties on consump- evinced a very enlightened spirit, and done tion, and the establishment at Genoa of much for the improvement of its subjects; porto franco or bonded warehouses. In and the schools and colleges, as well as this way, olive-oil, wheat, sugar, coffee, most branches of the public service, have cottons, woollens, linens, cotton wool and been materially ameliorated. Various new yarn, silks, indigo, salt fish, drugs, hides, and wholesome laws have been enacted tobacco, wine, cheese, and other principal for the regulation of communes, roads, articles of trade, appear on the public ac- weights and measures, sanitary police, counts both as imports and exports. In vaccination, prisons, forests, the game laws, 1835, the maritime imports amounted to &c. A good many canals, roads, and £4,800,000; the exports to £3,440,000; | bridges have been constructed, and hospiand the aggregate amount of shipping en- tals, museums, baths, and public establishtered was 2,927 vessels, in burthen 268,109 ments of all kinds, have been founded; the tons. The revenue of the kingdom, in harbours have been improved; light-houses 1839, was about £2,960,000; and the ex-built; and the army has been thoroughly penditure nearly the same. The debt re-organized. amounted to £5,800,000; bearing interest at 4 and 5 per cent. The public credit is high, owing to the progressive liquidation of the debt, and the punctual payment of the interest.—The Sardinian army, on the peace establishment, consists of about 22,000 men; but in time of war it may be raised to 132,600 men, of whom 67,200 are infantry of the line, 50,000 depôt and reserve infantry, 6000 cavalry, and 6300 artillery. The navy is composed of 6 frigates and 3 corvettes, besides smaller ves

SASSARI; a city of the island of Sardi nia, and the capital of its northern division. It is situated on the Turritano, about 10 miles from its mouth at Porto Torres in the gulf of Sassari, and 100 miles N.N.W. of Cagliari. Its population in 1838, including its commune and port of Torres, was 24,408. It has a massive cathedral, with a disproportioned and elaborate façade, and numerous other churches and convents. The university, founded in 1765, is established in the former Jesuits' college.

Though its port is a very bad one, it has a considerable trade in tobacco, oil, fruits, &c.

and partly to the markets of Prussia and other parts of Germany having been opened to the manufacturers by the Customs' Union (Zollverein), which has benefited Saxony beyond any other of its members. Most kinds of cotton fabrics are now produced; printing works are on the increase; and the cotton hosiery now competes with that of England in the foreign markets. The chief other manufactures are those of linens and woollens; but almost every article of luxury is made. The commerce of Saxony centres chiefly in Leipsic, to the fairs of which city immense quantities of foreign commodities are likewise brought for the supply of other parts of the European continent. Besides merchants from all parts of Europe, as many as 600 booksellers are said to have been assembled at some of these fairs, from all parts of Germany, to dispose of their publications and adjust their accounts. With a view to facilitate the mercantile operations of Leipsic, a joint-stock bank, with a capital of 1,500,000 thalers, was established there in 1839.-The Estates which Saxony possessed, previously to the year 1830, had comparatively little power; and the imposition of taxes and other public burdens, and the regulation of the public expenditure, mostly depended on the pleasure of the king. But the French revolution of 1830 was speedily followed, in Saxony, by some very important political changes. The king was obliged to associate his nephew, the present sovereign, with him in the government; a representative system was organized on a new principle; and the abuses incident to the feudal system were suppressed. There is a senate consisting of 52, and a house of representatives of 300 members. But owing to the high qualification required for deputies, and other causes, the new constitution has not obtained any great degree of popularity.

fels of coal are annually produced. — The most important branch of manufacturing industry is that of cotton, which, as well SAVARY* died at Paris in June 1833, as every other, has greatly expanded of of a disease contracted by him from expo- late years, owing partly to the extraordisure to the climate of Algiers. nary cheapness of labour which has attendSAVIGNY.* The 6th volume of this emi-ed the extension of the potato cultivation, nent jurist's "History of the Roman Law in the Middle Ages" appeared in 1831; and a second edition of it has since been published. Since the accession to the throne of the present king of Prussia, M. de Savigny has been entrusted, jointly with M. Mühler, with the charge of the ministry of justice at Berlin; in which of fice, he is chiefly occupied in the task of revising the existing laws of the kingdom. SAXONY.* The population of this kingdom, in 1844, is stated to have amounted to about 1,770,000; all of them Lutherans, with the exception of 32,000 Roman Catholics, 2000 Reformed Protestants, 130 persons of the Greek church, a small number of Herrnhütters, and 900 Jews. Every spot of ground which seems capable of giving a return is cultivated; and the meadows are mowed twice or thrice in the course of each summer. A common or waste is seldom or never to be met with, while the forests are guarded with a strictness proportioned to their value. But notwithstanding the improvement of agriculture, and the industry of the people, considerable quantities of corn have to be imported; and no agricultural produce is exported, except wool,-Saxony being celebrated for her breeds of sheep, which are among the finest in Europe. The late king, when elector of Saxony, introduced the breed of Merino sheep into his dominions, and exerted himself to promote the growth of this valuable race of animals with such success, that they are now found to succeed better in central Europe than in Spain; and notwithstanding the rapidly increasing importations from Australia, the greater portion of the immense quantity of wool imported into Great Britain still continues to be brought from Saxony and other German states. The cattle of Saxony are also of a superior description; and vast quantities of butter are made and consumed. Upwards of 500 mines are wrought, which are said to employ 11,000 workmen. The total annual value of the metals obtained is estimated, by Berghaus, at 1,760,000 dollars (thalers); the silver producing nearly 930,000, and the iron and iron-wares 400,000 dollars. The neighbourhood of Meissen yields the fine porcelain clay, of which the "Dresden China" is made. About 1 million schef

The public revenue, according to the last accounts, amounted to 5,681,002 thalers, and the expenditure to 5,662,289 thalers. The public debt, at the end of the year 1842, is stated at 10,142,020 thalers; it is in a regular course of reduction.

SAY (Thomas) was born in the city of Philadelphia, on the 27th of July 1787 He was the son of Dr. Benjamin Say, a

SAY.

533

a splendid library, abundant facilities for making collections, and a ready printingpress. But in a few months the parties associated in this undertaking disagreed among themselves, and separated. Mr. Maclure went to Mexico, and Mr. Owen to England; Mr. Say having in the mean time married, and having no other means of support, accepted the agency of the property, which compelled him to remain where he was. -- The constitution of Mr. Say had been for a long time undermined by habits of severe and long-continued study, extreme abstinence, both as respects food and sleep, and, during his residence at New Harmony, by repeated attacks of fever and dysentery. He was, at length, carried off by a fever, on the 10th of October 1834, in the 47th year of his age.His principal work, entitled "American Entomology," is the most beautiful publication of the kind which has ever been issued from the American press. It is illustrated by well-executed plates, colour

respectable physician, and a member of the Society of Friends. He received his early education, first at a Friends' school in the city, and afterwards at an academy belonging to the same sect at Westtown in its vicinity. His father not perceiving in him a predilection for any of the learned professions, and aware of the importance of occupation, took him into his own drug store, and subsequently established him in business as a druggist. But Thomas Say, while in the country, had imbibed a taste for the study of natural history, which he could not resist the temptation to gratify. Instead of attending to his business, he was often more pleasantly occupied with collecting and arranging the insects which he met with. He became imprudently responsible for the pecuniary engagements of others, and was before long deprived of all the capital which he had invested.. Satisfied with having thus far complied with the wishes of his father, and convinced, besides, of his being out of his proper province when engaged in any mer-ed from nature; which plates, in conjunccantile employment, Mr. Say now resolved to devote himself to the study of natural history. He was one of the members of the Academy of Natural Sciences at its formation, in January 1812; and when the Academy began the publication of its journal, in May 1817, he became one of its most active contributors. -In the early part of the year 1818, in company with Messrs. Maclure, Ord, and Peale, he visited the islands and adjacent coast of Georgia, and penetrated into East Florida, then under the dominion of Spain, for the purpose of studying the natural history of those interesting regions. This journey, however, although productive of much valuable information, was shortened in consequence of the hostilities which still existed between the people of the United States and the native tribes of Florida; the exploring party having been, indeed, advised by the Spanish governor of that territory to return, as it would not be in his power to afford them any assistance, in the event of an attack by the Indians.-Mr. Say held the office of chief zoologist in the expedition under the conduct of Major Long, in 1819-20, to the Rocky Mountains, and, in that of 1823, to the sources of the St. Peter's river, &c.; and he contributed largely to the accounts which were subsequently published of these expeditions. In 1825, he was induced to accompany Messrs. Maclure and Owen to their settlement of New Harmony, in Indiana, where, through the munificence of the first-mentioned gentleman, he enjoyed "the advantages of

tion with the descriptions, leave nothing to be desired on the score of certainty as regards species. The publisher at whose request it was undertaken, Mr. S. A. Mitchell, was resolved to spare no exertion on his part, to render the book as acceptable to the lovers of the fine arts as useful to the student of nature; and that he fully succeeded will not admit of a doubt. Two volumes appeared before, and one only after, the author's removal to the West. All of them were published in Philadelphia. His "American Conchology," only 6 numbers of which had been issued at the date of Mr. Say's death, was printed and published at New Harmony. In this work, he derived no slight advantage from the knowledge and skill of his intelligent wife, all the illustrations being the product of her pencil. His other contributions to the cause of science were inserted in the "Journal of the Academy of Natural Science," and other journals. | His discoveries of new species of insects were, perhaps, greater than ever had been made by a single individual. And the naturalists of Europe, fully sensible of his rare qualifications, were not backward in acknowledging his merits, for his name is to be found in the list of Foreign Members of the Linnean Society of London, and in that of the Zoological Society of the same capital; distinctions which our countryman must have justly valued, especially as the former list is restricted to the num· ber of 50, and the latter to only 25 individuals.-The virtues of Mr. Say in private

'ife, it may be added, are represented, by | hose who had the best opportunity of knowing him, to have been beyond all eulogy. His disposition was so truly amiable, and his manners so bland and conciliating, that no one, after having formed his acquaintance, could cease to esteem him. He was remarkable for his modesty, which led him to decline, on two several occasions, very advantageous offers that were made him; and he was ever actuated by the most scrupulous integrity and regard for truth.

SCHÄFER* died at Leipsic, in March 1840.

SCHELLING.* The only literary production of this philosopher that has appeared for many years is a preface of his to a German translation of Cousin's essay on the philosophy of France and Germany, in which he defends the latter against the attacks made upon him by some of his critics. Schelling has, however, long ago announced his intention of giving to the world an elaborate historical work, to be called "The four ages of the world ;" and some portions of it are reported to be in the press.

SCHIEDAM; a town and port of S. Holland, on the Schie, a tributary of the Maese, 3 miles W. of Rotterdam. It had, in 1837, a population of 11,815. It is the chief seat of the manufacture of Dutch gin, or Hollands. The quantity of this spirit produced here annually is very great, there being in the town as many as 100 distilleries; while many thousands of pigs are supported by the refuse of the malt employed in the manufacture.

SCHINKEL* died at Berlin, in October

1841.

English, and republished in this country. And a new edition of his "Universal History" is now in course of publication in Germany, with a continuation by another individual, under his superintendence.

SCHÖLL* died on a visit to Paris, in August 1833. His most extensive and most important work is the "Cours d'histoire des états européens, depuis la chute de de l'empire romain d'Occident jusqu'en 1789” (Paris, 1830–36, 46 vols.)

SCHOOLS.* Such information as we have been able to collect respecting the schools in different countries, in addition to what was given in our former volumes, will be found in this under the heads of the separate countries. Here, it is proposed merely to say a word or two on the subject of institutions for the blind, and for the deaf and dumb; and since little has reached us of any importance concerning these beyond their increase in number elsewhere, our notice of them will chiefly relate to our own country.

There are at present 6 institutions for the instruction of the blind in the United States. That at Boston, the first established, was incorporated in 1829, but did not go into operation till 1833. The number of pupils, at the close of the year 1845, was 91, supported for the most part by the New England states. North Carolina has in it one or two beneficiaries. At this institution are two blind mutes, who, by the indefatigable exertions of Dr. S. G. Howe, have made considerable advances in knowledge. To this gentleman and Mr. J. R. Friedlander, the founder of the Pennsylvania Institution, is mainly due the credit of establishing in this country the fact of the capability of the blind to receive education.-The New York Institution, in the city of New York, was founded in 1831, and commenced its instructions in 1832. The number of pupils is 125, all from New York and New Jersey. The Pennsylvania Institution, in Philadelphia, was organized in March 1833, and received its charter from the State Legislature in 1834. Provision for the education of indigent pupils from PennFeb-sylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, at this institution, has been made by these states respectively. There are 73 pupils.-The Ohio Institution, at Columbus, was incorporated in 1836, and opened its school in the following year. It has at present about 70 pupils.-In March 1838, the Legislature of Virginia made provision for the education of the deaf and dumb and blind, and, in the succeeding year, established the institution for this

SCHLEGEL* (Augustus William v.). He delivered at Berlin, in 1827, a course of lectures on the fine arts, which were afterwards (during the same year) published under the title of "Lectures on the Theory and History of the Arts of Design." These were followed (1828) by his "Critical Essays," and (1832) by his "Reflections on the study of the Asiatic Languages." He died on the 12th of May 1845.

SCHLEIERMACHER* died at Berlin, ruary 12th 1834.

SCHLOSSER. Besides his works already mentioned, he has published a sketch of the history of the "Ancient World and its Civilization" (1826-34, 3 vols.), and a "Judgment of Napoleon and of his later detractors and admirers, in relation particularly to the period from 1810 to 1813" (1832-35, in 3 parts). His "History of the 18th century" has been translated into