hand or the feet of the person approached, or to kiss the hem of his garment, or embrace his feet, Luke vii. 38, 45; Matt. xxviii. 9.

3. From time immemorial it has also been the universal custom in the East, to send presents one to another. No one waits upon a prince, or any person of distinction, without a present. This is a token of respect never dispensed with. Let the present be ever so mean and inconsiderable, yet the intention of the giver is accepted. Plutarch informs us, that a peasant happening to fall in the way of Artaxerxes, the Persian monarch, in one of his excursions, having nothing to present to his sovereign, according to the Oriental custom, the countryman immediately ran to an adjacent stream, filled both his hands, and offered it to his prince. The monarch smiled, and graciously received it, highly pleased with the good disposition this act manifested. * All modern books of travels into the East, abound with examples of this univer

sally prevailing custom. "It is accounted uncivil," says

Maundrel," to visit in Syria without an offering in hand. All great men expect it, as a kind of tribute to their character and authority; and look upon themselves as affronted, and even defrauded, when this compliment is omitted. Even in familiar visits among inferiors, you will seldom see them come without bringing a flower, or an orange, or some other token of respect, to the person visited; the Turks, in this point, keeping up the ancient Oriental custom, as hinted, 1 Sam. ix. 7, 8. If we go,' says Saul, what shall we bring the man of God? there is not a present,' &c.: which words are unquestionably to be understood in conformity to this Eastern custom, as relating to a token of respect, and not a price of divination."+

6

4. The same writer thus describes the mode of visiting in the East: :- "When you would make a visit to a person of quality, you must send one before with a present to bespeak your admission, and to know at what hour your coming may be most seasonable. Being come to the house, the servants meet you at the outermost gate, and conduct you toward their lord's or master's apartment: other servants (I suppose of better rank) meeting you in the way, at their several stations, as you draw nearer to the person you visit. Coming into his room, you find him prepared to receive you, either standing at the edge of the duan, or else lying down, at one corner of it, according as he thinks it proper to maintain a greater or less distinction. Being come to the side of the duan, you * Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii. pp. 279-287. Journey, March 11.

the

slip off your shoes, and stepping up take your place, which you must do, first, at some distance, and upon your knees, laying your hand very formally before you. Thus you must remain till the man of quality invites you to draw nearer, and to put yourself in an easier posture, leaning upon the bolster. Being thus fixed, he discourses with you as the occasion offers, the servants standing round all the while in a great number, and with the profoundest respect, silence, and order imaginable. When you have talked over your business, or compliments, or whatever other concern brought you thither, he makes a sign to have things brought in for the entertainment, which is generally a little sweetmeat, a dish of sherbet, and another of coffee: all which are immediately brought in by the servants, and tendered to all the guests in order, with the greatest care and awfulness imaginable. And they have reason to look well to it; for should any servant make but the least slip or mistake, either in delivering or receiving his dish, it might cost him fifty, perhaps a hundred drubs, on his bare feet, to atone for the crime. At last comes the finishing part of your entertainment; which is perfuming the beards of company; a ceremony which is performed in this manner. They have for this purpose a small silver chaffing-dish, covered with a lid, full of holes, and fixed upon a handsome plate. In this they put some fresh coals, and upon them a piece of lignum aloes, and then shutting it up, the smoke immediately ascends with a grateful odour, through the holes of the cover. It is held under every one's chin, and offered, as it were, a sacrifice to his beard. The bristly idol soon perceives the reverence done to it, and so greedily takes in and incorporates the gummy steam, that it retains the savour of it, and may serve for a nosegay a good while after. This ceremony may, perhaps, seem ridiculous at first hearing; but it passes among the Turks for a high gratification. And I will say this in its vindication, that its design is very wise and useful. For it is understood to give a civil dismissal to the visitants, intimating to them, that the master of the house has business to do, or some other avocation, that permits them to go away as soon as they please; and the sooner after this ceremony the better. By this means you may, at any time, without offence deliver yourself from being detained from your affairs by tedious and unseasonable visits, and from being constrained to use that piece of hypocrisy, so common in the world, of pressing those to stay longer with you, whom, perhaps, in your heart you wish a great way off, for having troubled you so long already." *

* Journey, March 13.

II. The common method in the East, of doing honour to an inferior, seems to have been by presenting him with a change of raiment. Thus Belshazzar promised Daniel, that if he could interpret the mysterious writing on the wall, he should be clothed in scarlet; have a golden chain about his neck, and be third ruler in the empire, Dan. v. 16. Alexander, the son of Antiochus Epiphanes, when he appointed Jonathan Maccabæus high priest, and declared him the king's friend, sent him a purple robe and a crown of gold (1 Mac. x. 20); he afterwards did him more signal honour, by sending him a buckle of gold, to wear on the shoulder, and to fasten his purple robe; as the use was to be given to such as were of the king's blood, ver. 89. See also chap. xi. 57, 58; 1 Esd.

iii. 6.

The princes of the East, even at the present day, have many changes of raiment ready, both as an article of wealth, which large wardrobes have always been in that country, and to suit the occasion. This accounts for the ease with which Jehu's mandate was obeyed, when he ordered 400 vestments for the priests of Baal, that none might escape, 2 Kings x. 22. For a superior to give his own garment to an inferior, was esteemed a high mark of regard. Hence Jonathan gave his to David, 1 Sam. xviii. 4. And the following extract from Sir John Malcolm's History of Persia, may serve to throw some light on Elisha's request to have the mantle of Elijah, 2 Kings ii. 13.-"When the Khalifa, or teacher of the Sooffees, dies, he bequeaths his patched garment, which is all his worldly wealth, to the disciple whom he esteems the most worthy to become his successor; and the moment the latter puts on the holy mantle, he is vested with the power of his predecessor."*

III. The chief of the marks of disgrace noticed in the Scriptures are, subjecting men to the employment of women (Lam. v. 13); cutting off the beard, and plucking off the hair (2`Sam. x. 5; Is. 1. 6); spitting in the face (Is. 1. 6); clapping the hands, hissing, and making significant gestures, Ezek. xxv. 6; Job xxvii. 23; Lam. ii. 15; Is. lvii. 4. But marks of disgrace were not confined to the living. They often extended to the dead, by refusing them the rites of sepulture (Rev. xi. 1-12); raising them after they had been interred (Jer. viii. 1); forbidding them to be publicly lamented; allowing them to become the prey of ravenous beasts (Jer. xvi. 5-7; xix. 7); xxii. 18, 19; 2 Mac. v. 10); casting them into the common burial ground (Jer. xxvi. 23), and burning their bones into lime, Amos ii. 1.

* Chap. xxii.

R R

610

CHAPTER XI.

SCRIPTURE ALLUSIONS TO VARIOUS CUSTOMS AND OPINIONS.

SECTION I.

IMAGES BORROWED FROM THE THEATRE.

1. Theatrical exhibitions not adopted by the Jews-2. Allusions to the Drama3. Allusions to combats in the Amphitheatres.

and

need

1. We have no intimations in the Scriptures, that the Jews had any places of public amusement, for games and theatrical exhibitions, as was the universal custom among the Greeks and Romans. Instead of these, the Hebrews seem to har been well satisfied with those grand and solemn festival which the Holy Scriptures enjoined them to observe; when we duly consider the solemnity, the magnificence, and the rejoicings which accompanied those festivals, the gra deur of the Temple where they were celebrated, together with the 32,000 Levites who officiated in the service, we not feel surprise that they should prefer them to all other entertainments. Indeed, the Talmud affirms that all kinds of games and spectacles, were not only prohibited, but ab horred, by all good Israelites in consequence of the mis chiefs which had befallen those who had ventured to be present at those of the neighbouring nations: and R. Simeon Ben Paki comments thus on Ps. i. 1.-"Blessed is the man who hath not set his foot in a theatre," &c. It was reserved for Herod to introduce amusements of this description among the Jewish people, which he did on a most magnificent scale, and at a vast expence. But notwithstanding the degeneracy of the nation at this time, they were so disgusted at the attempt, that they united to put them down, by compassing

the death of their founder.* Such being the distaste of this people for theatrical exhibitions, we are hardly prepared to expect any allusions to the stage or its amusements, in the sacred writings; and the consequence is, that we overlook the force and beauty of several passages where such allusions exist.†

2. In the writings of St. Paul, especially, do we meet with allusions to the drama, which has furnished him with some of the most beautiful metaphors that adorn his compositions. The drama was instituted for the purpose of exhibiting a striking picture of human life, and, in a faithful mirror, to hold up to the spectator's view, that variety of character with which it is diversified, and those interchanges and reverses of fortune with which it is checquered. It needs hardly be remarked, though the observation is proper for the purpose of illustrating a very beautiful passage in one of St Paul's epistles, that a variety of scenes are painted, and, by means of the requisite machinery, are very frequently shifting, in order to show the characters in a variety of places and fortunes. To the spectator, lively and affecting views are by turns displayed-every thing, from the beginning to the catastrophe, perpetually varying and changing according to the rules and conduct of the drama, Agreeably to this, with what elegance and propriety does St. Paul represent the fashion of this world as continually passing away (1 Ĉor. vii. 31), and all the scenes of this vain and visionary life as perpetually shifting. "The imagery," says Grotius, "is taken from the theatre, where the scenery is suddenly changed, and exhibits an appearance totally different." And as the transactions of the drama are not real, but fictitious and imaginary, such and such characters being assumed and personated, in whose joys or griefs, in whose domestic felicities and infelicities, in whose elevation or depression, the actor is not really and personally interested, but only supports a character perhaps entirely foreign from his own, and represents passions and affections in which his own heart has no share : how beautiful and expressive, when considered in this light, is that passage of Scripture in which the Apostle is inculcating a Christian indifference for this world, and exhorting us not to suffer ourselves to be unduly affected either by the joys or sorrows of so fugitive and transitory a scene. this I say, brethren, the time is short. It remaineth that both they that have wives be as though they had none: and

*See Josephus, Antiq. b. xv. c. 8.

The remaining part of this section is derived from Dr. Harwood.

"But