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And thus the progress of man is the result of complicated forces acting from of old. Man is ever the heir of all pre

ceding ages.

The mere fact that any business is a service to man does not prove that the person doing the business is actuated by love to man. He may be actuated solely by a selfish regard to his own interest, or by interest in science or art with no thought of the welfare of man. But it demonstrates that the business gives abundant scope for Christian service to man in love to God and ought to be prosecuted as such.

5. A further evidence that business may be a Christian service of man is the fact that in all its transactions in detail Christian benevolence regulated by righteousness is required, and thus there is scope for the continual exercise of all the Christian virtues.

6. Business, including all work for hire, gives scope for the Christian service of man in the use of the income. I do not refer merely to what one gives away for charitable purposes, which, as already shown, is a comparatively small part of one's life-work. The entire income of any industrial pursuit is to be devoted to the service of man. Thus the use of the whole income may become a real expression of love to God with all the heart and to one's neighbor as himself. Of course the person recognizes the fact that he owes a peculiar service to himself and his own family the rendering of which is an essential part of his service to mankind. The decision of every question as to how much of his income he shall expend on himself and his own family, how much he shall invest, and how much he shall give for charitable purposes, hinges on the question, in what way of expending he will most completely meet all his obligations of duty and so most effectively advance the kingdom. of God on earth and thus promote the well-being of man. The expenditure of income is not strictly a transaction of the daily business and industry; but in the often monotonous transactions of daily business and industry one feels himself inspired and his business ennobled as a Christian service, by the fact that its income is to be expended in promoting the kingdom of God and the well-being of man.

Thus Christianity claims all human business as a Christian service of man under the law of love; and all legitimate busi

ness gives scope to such service in the business itself, in all its transactions in detail and in the use of its income.1

II. RECIPROCAL AND GRATUITOUS SERVICE. In determining what service one owes to another in any given case, an important point to be considered is their respective ability to render service. From this point of view the Christian law of greatness for service is found to imply two rules or laws of action. The first is the law of reciprocal service; when in any particular transaction each party is, as to that transaction, equally able to serve the other, each is required to render to the other a service equivalent to that which he receives. The other is the law of gratuitous service; when one is in need of service which he cannot requite, the strong must serve the weak so far as he has ability and opportunity to do so in good-will and righteousness to all.

1. The former of these two is the law in all transactions of business. Business consists in the exchange of labor or commodity for labor or commodity, or for money which represents all values; or, as some writers on political economy properly express it, in the exchange of services. And the law of all legitimate business is that in every transaction the service rendered shall be of equal value with the service received; the transaction shall be an exchange of equivalent services; each party shall be equally benefited.

In this way business is to be done in benevolence regulated by righteousness. It is commonly admitted that in transacting business a person should be always truthful, just, honest, and honorable; that is, that his action should be regulated by righteousness. But it is a common impression that in business there is no place

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1 There is a widely spread impression that a person of great genius is thereby exempted from strict compliance with the Christian law. Thus it was said of Madame Dudevant (George Sand), Genius in all time has seemed to assume the right to be a law unto itself, and we have in this case another instance of the difficulty of holding exceptionally gifted natures to the conventionalities that are the welcome safeguard to less daring souls." But the Seventh Commandment is not a mere "conventionality;" it is the law of God. This same writer says of this gifted woman, that her "history had passages wicked beyond comment or excuse." And her novels, especially the earlier ones, were corrupting and debasing. But in fact a person, by virtue of superior genius, is the more under obligation to use his or her great powers in the service of man in benevolence regulated in its exercise by righteousness. Superior greatness is under obligation to render superior service.

for benevolence. Business is business, it is said; what I do in benevolence must be outside my business. This assumes that benevolence is exercised only in what we give away. It is true that the law of gratuitous service is not a law of the transactions of business. These transactions consist in the exchange of equivalent services under the law of reciprocity. Giving property away is not the transaction of business. But it does not follow that benevolence is excluded from business. In giving an equivalent for what I receive I may do it in good-will to the person with whom I am dealing, in the desire that it may be to him a service fully equivalent to that which he has rendered to me. Justice requires that I render to him a full equivalent for what I receive. But justice is not exclusive of benevolence, but is always to be exercised in benevolence. Benevolence is the atmosphere in which true justice must live and breathe. Accordingly, in every transaction in business each party is bound to be as careful to see that he renders an equivalent for what he receives, as he is to see that he receives an equivalent for what he gives. The employer must serve the workman as really as the workman must serve the employer. This excludes from all business the maxim Caveat emptor, let the other party look out for himself, a maxim which implies that in any transaction each party shall look out only for his own interest with no concern for the interest of the other. The maxim is unchristian and immoral. The only legitimate bargain under the Christian law of love is one in which equivalent services are exchanged, in which each party is equally benefited and takes care and pains to have it so. Any transaction, in which one intentionally takes from another property or service for which he does not render an equivalent, is fraudulent. It must be classed with cheating, stealing, swindling, and robbing; for what are these but taking a person's property without rendering an equivalent?

2. The law of gratuitous service is, when the parties are not able to render equivalent services, the strong must serve the weak in good-will regulated by righteousness. This is a general principle, not a specific rule. What service is to be rendered in such a case must be determined by each one for himself in view of his own ability and of his relations and obligations to others in the moral system, and of the best and most effective ways of helping the needy.

III. PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE OF THE CHRISTIAN CONCEPTION OF BUSINESS. This Christian conception of business as service to man in loving trust in God and obedience to him is of farreaching practical importance.

1. The Christian conception of business gives the criteria by which to distinguish legitimate business from illegitimate, and so to guide in choosing a business as the work of life. Paul speaks of the business of a Christian as a calling of God (1 Cor. vii. 20). Hence it is familiarly spoken of in Christian countries as the man's calling. And as the line of a man's life-work in the service of God and man it is properly so designated, and should be chosen as such seeking the guidance of God.

The first criterion of a legitimate business is, that in its prosecution and its products it is a beneficent service to man. Dramselling, brothel-keeping, counterfeiting, the adulteration of food, medicine and other products are illegitimate lines of business, because in their prosecution and products they are injurious to individuals and to society.

A second criterion is that in the detailed transactions of the business it shall be possible for each party to receive a full equivalent for what he gives. By this criterion the making and holding of slaves, gambling, betting, lotteries, and all transactions designed to extort something for nothing, are excluded from legitimate business. Speculation which creates a corner in wheat or purposely and artificially raises the price of a commodity is an illegitimate business which the Christian law of love forbids, because it creates no value; it only compels the transfer of value from others to one's self without returning an equivalent. And what does the highwayman more? The difference is only of method. The latter compels the transfer by force on the peril of life; the former equally compels the transfer, though by indirection, and equally it may be on the peril of life; for, at whatever price, a person must have the necessaries of life or die. And so the scriptures pronounce the condemnation: "He who withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him "1 (Prov. xi. 26).

Here the objection may be made that all business satisfies human wants, and that therefore all business is equally legitimate.

1 Of course by these two criteria all living by stealing, robbery, and other criminal acts is excluded, and all dishonesty and fraud in any business which is in itself legitimate.

But from ignorance or vice men have perverted desires, the satisfaction of which is a detriment both to the person himself and to society. Therefore the two parties in a transaction may each be satisfied that he has received an equivalent for what he gave; and yet in reality one has received evil and not good. All business which consists in satisfying such perverted desires is illegitimate; it is contrary to Christianity and good morals. like giving a child a scorpion because he cries for it. The only effective way to suppress business of this kind is so to educate and develop the people that they will not allow themselves to become victims of such evil desires and habits. With the cessation of these wants all demand for the supply of them would cease. Here, as always, the progress of society is possible primarily only by the improvement of the people, to which regulation, restriction, or prohibition by the civil law must always be secondary.

These criteria must be recognized in selecting one's line of business. The distribution of duties to men must be determined in part by the fact that one's service must be rendered in some specific business. This is rendered necessary by the division of labor essential in civilized life. Hence the right choice of a profession or business is of supreme importance. It is to be the person's life-work, in the prosecution of which far the greater part of all which he accomplishes through his whole life in the service of God and man will be done. As such he must choose it conscientiously and consecrate himself to the service of God and man in it. He must choose only among lines of business which have the distinctive criteria of legitimate business. Among these, few may be accessible and the range of choice is commonly very limited. But in selecting among those which are accessible to him he should select the one best suited to his own peculiar powers, and in which therefore he can achieve the greatest and best results in the service of man.

2. The realization of this Christian conception of business would broaden the conception of the Christian life by correcting a common tendency to misapprehend the distinction of the religious and the secular and to set the one apart from the other. It would make religion pervade human life like the atmosphere pressing on every surface and penetrating every opening; or like electricity acting unseen in every living organism; or like the

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