occupying at least one or two hours weekly, for which they receive no pay. In 1861 the sum paid out for the professors' salaries, was 93,350, i.e. on the average less than 550 for each instructor. The receipts of the university amounted to 187,302 thaler. Of this 179,890 were from the state funds, 7,290 from students tuition fees and other direct receipts.

Every one who wishes to be matriculated as a student must present a certificate of graduation at some gymnasium or of regular discharge from another university. In the first case a fee of six thaler is required; in the other, three. He must have his name enrolled as a student in one of the four faculties, but is at liberty to hear lectures in any department. There is no compulsion in the matter of attending lectures. Even the courses which one voluntarily selects, he is at perfect liberty to neglect. During the first part of a term one may, without paying and without seeking special permission, hear whatever lectures he pleases. This is called hospitating. Indigent students, by presenting the requisite certificates, may be excused from paying the tuition fees for a period of six years. A professor may give any one special permission to hear his lectures gratis. Much assistance is given to poor and meritorious students by stipends providing for their board and rewarding successful competitors for literary composition.

Perhaps no one thing will better illustrate the genius of the German universities than the provisions relating to the conferring of degrees and the acquisition of the right to hold lectures. The medical and law faculties confer only one degree, that of doctor. No medical student can become a practising physician without the degree. Accordingly we find that in the first fifty years of the university, while only one hundred and twenty-one became doctors of law, four thousand five hundred and eighty-eight were made doctors of medicine. The theological and philosophical faculties confer two degrees, that of licentiate and that of doctor. Up to 1860, five hundred and sixty-eight had received the degree of Ph. D., sixty-two that of Lic. Th., and twenty-five that of Th. D. The method of obtaining the degree of licentiate of theology is prescribed in the laws of the Berlin University as follows:

The candiate must have pursued a regular course of three years' study. The application for examination must be made to the faculty through a dissertation composed in Latin, accompanied by a brief sketch, also in Latin, of the applicant's life. The dean delivers the dissertation to the several members of the faculty, who, after examining it, decide whether the applicant shall be admitted to an examination. If the decision is in the affirmative, the candidate is summoned before the assembled faculty, and examined in all the leading branches of theological science, but with special thoroughness in that branch to which he intends to devote himself. If he fails to satisfy his examiners, he can make no second application within less than a year. If he is not rejected, he receives a diploma, on which, according as he has displayed greater or less ability, is written

summa cum laude or simply cum laude. After this examination a public disputation in Latin must follow within six weeks, the subject of which must be a dissertation composed, and at his own expense printed and distributed by him to the ministers of state, to all the professors of the university, and certain other persons, especially to those who are to oppose him in the discussion. Of these opponents there must be at least three. After these have spoken, any member of the university may also join in the opposition. If the candidate by his defense fails to meet the expectations created by his examination, the "promotion" may be deferred. If otherwise, the dean delivers an address, presents a diploma to the candidate, who, after receiving it, briefly expresses his thanks, and so the promotion is completed. The licentiate must afterwards provide one hundred and fifty copies of the diploma for the register office of the university.

No one can become a doctor of theology without having acquired an acknowledged distinction in the department of theological science. Whoever seeks the degree must write a Latin dissertation on a theme approved by the faculty, and must satisfy the latter not only that his former examination was well sustained, but that he has since then, either as a preacher or as a scholar, evinced special ability. The act of promotion is in this case also of a ceremonious character. The faculty can, however, confer the honorary degree of Th. D. on any one who may seem to them to deserve it, without his making any application. In this case the consent of the ministry is necessary.

Every candidate for the degree of licentiate must pay fifty thaler, and for that of doctor one hundred thaler, half of the sum before the examination; and this is not returned in case the examination is unsatisfactory; but it is reckoned to his account if he passes a second examination.

In order to become a privat-docent, it is necessary not only to have received one of the two degrees, but to pass through a process called habilitation. The applicant must present to the faculty a petition written in Latin, accompanied by the necessary certificates and documents concerning his life, character, and circumstances; in addition, written or printed essays, in Latin or German, on subjects belonging to each of the departments to which he purposes in his lectures to devote himself. Two members of the faculty are selected to examine the essays. After fourteen days they pronounce their judgment. The faculty then vote on the case, and if the applicant isaccepted, he must deliver, in German or Latin, before the faculty one or more trial lectures on topics approved by the latter. Four weeks are allowed for the preparation of each of these lectures. A debate follows between the candidate and the members of the faculty. At its close the candidate retires, and the faculty decide whether to receive him as privat-docent. If they vote in his favor, he is allowed three months in which to prepare a Latin lecture to be delivered in public. This closes the habilitation, and the faculty must then announce the result to the ministry.

ARTICLE VI.

RECENT GERMAN THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

DOGMATIC THEOLOGY OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH, by Dr. Philippi, Professor of Theology at the University of Rostock.1

Dr. Philippi, the author of a valuable and detailed commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, is one of the principal theologians of the stricter Lutheran tendency. Those who wish for a thoroughly orthodox discussion of Christian doctrine will do well to refer to the work whose title we have given above. It is written, of course, from the Lutheran point of view, but harmonizes on fundamental matters with the great doctrines accepted by all the Protestant churches. The first volume contains the Prolegomena, and treats, in two chapters, of Religion, Revelation, Faith, Doctrine, the Holy Scriptures, the Canon, Inspiration, Interpretation. On the question of inspiration the author expresses himself as follows: "Inspiration, or theopneustia, is that act of the Spirit of God on the spirit of man by which the latter is so identified with the object to be revealed as to be able to apprehend and communicate it in unclouded purity; in other words, it is such a confluence of the mind of man with the Spirit of God that the revelation of the latter is received in full purity and completeness by the former.” He distinguishes three stages or modes of inspiration - historical or legal, prophetical, and apostolic inspiration; and maintains the inspiration of the word, as opposed both to the mere inspiration of the matter and to that of the words of scripture. Much suggestive thought will be found in the first of the chapters mentioned above. Dr. Philippi's work is the best authoritative exposition of Lutheran theology, as distinguished from that known as Unionistic, whose chief representatives are Nitzsch, Twesten, Müller, Dorner, and from that of the Reformed church (Comp. Vol. XXI. p. 888). APOLOGY FOR DIVINE REVELATION, by Dr. C. A. Auberlen, late Professor of Theology at the University of Basle.'

This is the second part of the lamented Auberlen's last, ripest, and most peculiar work. The present volume discusses the presuppositions of revelation; or, in other words, the nature, constitution, and condition of man as requiring, and presupposed by, revelation. The following extract

1 Kirchliche Glaubenslehre. Von Dr. F. A. Philippi, Ord. Prof. der Theologie zu Rostock. I. Grundgedanken oder Prolegomena. Zweite, verbesserte und durch Excurse vermehrte Auflage. Stuttgart: G. S. Liesching; London: Asher and Co. 1864.

2 Die göttliche Offenbarung: Ein apologetischer Versuch. Von C. A. Auberlen, Dr. der Philosophie und Theologie, der letzteren a. o. Prof. in Basel.

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from the introductory remarks indicates, in a general way, the tendency of the work: "Man needs a revelation because he is a religious being, because he is an historical being, dependent on the race; he cannot, as idealism supposes, draw the truth out of his own inner being; to the development of his faculties in general he needs stimulus from without, education and culture by means of the spiritual forces already present in history. Of these forces, one of the principal is revelation." In the last section, which treats of religion and revelation, are some admirable observations, bearing on the question: How can man's spiritual life depend on historical facts, whose reality very few men have either the time, ability, or opportunity of proving? a question which underlies almost all the scepticism distinctive of the present age. We cannot forbear giving the substance of one passage in particular: "If man is to have the fellowship with God which his nature demands, it must be brought about by free divine acts. But these acts of God are not something foreign to man, not something outward to and forced on him; on the contrary, they are the satisfaction of his deepest wants, the fulfilment of the holiest, profoundest demands of his conscience. It lies in the nature of things that these wants and demands can only be met from without and above: the conscience of man is never satisfied until the supra-mundane God condescends to it. Considered from this point of view, the outward is not merely outward, but also inward; the positive, ideal; the historical, natural; or, in other words, answers to our true, inmost nature. Nor is this relation the fruit of sin; no, it is the primal relation between God as the Creator and man as the creature a relation which has been sadly misunderstood by modern thinkers, with their perverted self-satisfaction and deification of humanity. It is but one application of the universal law, that subordinate beings need stimulating and fructifying from those higher than themselves, if they are to have true life. The earth needs the rain and sunlight of the heavens," etc. We commend the book to the thoughtful attention of theologians and pastors.

THE HISTORY OF JESUS ACCORDING TO MATTHEW ITS OWN EVIDENCE, and other Essays, by Thomas Wizenmann.1

It is almost enough to recommend this History of Jesus, to say that, although a posthumous work, it is now republished after an interval of seventy-five

II. Band. Zur Lehre vom Menschen als religiösem Wesen. Mit einem Lebensabriss des Verstorbenen. Basel: Bahnmaier's Verlag; London: Asher and

Co. 1864.

1 Die Geschichte Jesu nach Matthaeus als Selbstbeweis ihrer Zuverlässigkeit betrachtet. Ein nachgelassenes Werk von Thomas Wizenmann, zum ersten Male 1789 mit einer Vorrede herausgegeben von J. F. Kleuker, zum zweiten Male mit einer Einleitung und dem Meisten und Bedeutendsten aus Wizenmann's Nachlasse von Dr. C. A. Auberlen. Basel: Bahnmaier's Verlag; London: Asher and Co. 1864.

years; for this is a very uncommon occurrence in Germany, where the best authors become antiquated in ten or fifteen years. But Wizenmann was not an ordinary mind. Kant remarked of him that he had an acute and clear head; Jacobi styled him a thinker of the first order. The design of the treatise is to ascertain how many internal arguments for the credibility of the history of Jesus can be gathered from the book of Matthew considered solely by itself. Wizenmann, we are told, wrote to Jacobi shortly before his death (he was carried away by consumption in his twenty-eighth year, in 1787), "If you would but study the Bible as you study Spinoza, you would find the truth of the Christian religion to be far more evident than any principles demonstrated by philosophy. In opposition to all a priori theories, he appeals to the grand fact of the existence and influence of the Bible; and demands an a posteriori, exact, really historical, and critical investigation of its substance and claims. He called to the opponents of revelation in his own day: "Look at the fact as it lies before your eyes; investigate thoroughly every detail of the Bible till you grasp it as a whole; collect the impressions made on your mind and reflect on them as rigidly, keenly, and acutely as you can; in a word, do with this book as you do with others, and I am sure the result will be that to which Christ refers in John viii. 47: "He that is of God heareth my word." Besides the History of Jesus, the work contains a number of shorter essays on the "Evidence for the Existence of a Higher Being"; "The Trinity"; “God and the World"; "The Knowledge of God from History" (peculiarly suggestive); "The Anthropomorphic Revelations of God" (a sound antidote to the philosophy, falsely so called, of such books as Mansel's Limits of Religious Thought); "The Simplicity and Truth of Divine Revelation "; " The Divine Economy"; "The Account of Creation and Paradise in Genesis"; "Miracles," etc. As a posthumous work it lays, of course, no claim to be a rounded and finished production, and in some respects it is behind the times; but it is full of profound hints and thoroughly original thoughts, expressed with great freshness and force.

HISTORY OF RATIONALISM, by Dr. A. Tholuck.1

Dr. Tholuck has brought his "Vorgeschichte des Rationalismus" (Forehistory, one might translate it, if it were allowable to coin so clumsy a word) to an end, and now commences the history proper. If the main edifice were to bear any proportion to the portal, we should have a work almost as large as Macaulay's or Buckle's projected histories; but Dr. Tholuck, mindful of the uncertainty of time, has resolved to limit the present part of his undertaking to three moderate-sized volumes.

1 Geschichte des Rationalismus. Erste Abtheilung: Geschichte des Pietismus und des ersten Stadiums der Aufklärung. Von Dr. A. Tholuck. Berlin:

Wiegandt und Grieben; London: Asher and Co. 1865.