The followers of Aristotle were another famous Grecian sect. That philosopher was born in the first year of the ninety-ninth olympiad, about three hundred and eighty-four years before the birth of Christ.

Aristotle supposed the universe to have existed from eternity. He admitted however the existence of a Deity, whom he styled the first mover; and whose nature, as explained by him, is something like the principle which gives motion to a machine: it is a nature wholly separated from matter, immutable, and far superior to all other intelligent natures. The celestial sphere, which is the region of his residence, is also immutable; and, residing in his first sphere, he possesses neither immensity nor omnipresence. Happy in the contemplation of himself, he is entirely regardless of human affairs. In producing motion, the Deity acts not voluntarily, but necessarily; not for the sake of other beings, but for his own pleasure.*

Nothing occurs in the writings of Aristotle which decisively determines whether he supposed the soul of man mortal or immortal.

Respecting ethics, he taught that happiness consisted in the virtuous exercise of the mind; and that virtue consists in preserving that mean in all things which reason and prudence prescribe. It is the middle path between two extremes, one of which is vicious through excess, the other through defect.†

The Stoics were a sect of heathen philosophers, of which Zeno, (who flourished about three hundred and fifty years before Christ,) was the founder. They received their denomination from a place in which Ženo delivered his lectures, which was a portico at Athens. Their distinguishing tenets were as follow:-That God is underived, incorruptible, and eternal; possessed of intelligence and goodness; the efficient cause of all the qualities and forms of things; and the constant

* Mosheim, vol. i. p. 28, Enfield,

Travels of Anacharsis.

preserver and governor of the world. That matter is also underived and eternal, and by the powerful energy of the Deity impressed with motion and form. That though God and matter subsisted from eternity, the present regular frame of nature had a beginning, and will have an end. That the element of fire will at last, by an universal conflagration, reduce the world to its pristine state. That at this period all material forms are lost in one chaotic mass; all animated nature is reunited to the Deity, and matter returns to its original form. That from this chaotic state, however, it again emerges by the energy of the efficient principle; and gods, and men, and all forms of regulated nature, are renewed to be dissolved, and renewed in endless succession.* That at the restoration of all things the race of men will return to life.t-Some imagined that each individual would return to its former body, while others supposed that after the revolution of the great year similar souls would be placed in similar bodies.

Those among the Stoics who maintained the existence of the soul after death, supposed it to be removed into the celestial regions of the gods, where it remains, till, at the general conflagration, all souls, both human and divine, shall be absorded in Deity. But many imagined that, before they were admitted among the divinities, they must purge away their inherent vices and imperfections, by a temporary residence in the aërial regions between the earth and the moon, or in the moon itself. It was supposed that depraved and ignoble souls are agitated after death in the lower region of the air, till the fiery parts were separated

*Enfield, vol. i. p. 282..

† According to the Stoics, men return to life, not by the voluntary appointment of a wise and merciful God, but by the laws of fate; and are not renewed for the enjoyment of a happier condition, but return to their former state of imperfection and misery. Accordingly, Seneca, a celebrated Stoic philosopher, observes that many would reject this renovation, were not their renovated life accompanied with a total oblivion of past events.

from the grosser; and rose by their natural levity to the orbit of the moon, where they are still further purified and refined.

According to the doctrine of the Stoics, all things are subject to an irresistible and irreversible fatality; and there is a necessary chain of causes and effects arising from the action of a power, which is itself a part of the machine it regulates; and which, equally with the machine, is subject to the immutable laws of necessity.

The moral doctrine of the Stoics depends upon the preceding principles. They make virtue to consist in an acquiescence in the immutable laws of necessity by which the world is governed. The resignation they prescribe appears to be part of their scheme to raise mankind to that liberty and self-sufficiency which it is the great end of their philosophy to procure. They assert that virtue is its own proper reward, and vice its own punishment; that all external things are indifferent, and that a wise man may be happy in the midst of tortures. The ultimate design of their philosophy was to divest human nature of all passions and affections; and they make the highest attainments and perfection of virtue to consist in a total apathy, and insensibility of human evils.*

The Platonic philosophy is denominated from Plato, who was born in the eighty-seventh olympiad, four hundred and twenty-six years before the nativity of Jesus Christ. He founded the old academy on the opinions of Heraclitus, Pythagoras, and Socrates; and by adding the information he had acquired to their discoveries, he established a sect of philosophers who were esteemed more perfect than those who had before appeared in the world.+

The outlines of Plato's philosophical system were as follow:-That there is one God, an eternal, immutable, and immaterial Being, perfect in wisdom and

* Enfield. + Dacier's Plato, vol. i. p. 31.

goodness, omniscient, and omnipresent. That this allwise and perfect Being formed the universe out of a mass of pre-existing matter,* to which he gave form and arrangement. That there is in matter a necessary, but blind and refractory force, which resists the will of the supreme Artificer; so that he cannot perfectly execute his designs: and this is the cause of the mixture of good and evil which is found in the material world. That the soul of man was derived by emanation from God; but that this emanation was not immediate, but through the intervention of the soul of the world, which was itself debased by some material admixture. That the relation which the human soul, in its original constitution, bears to matter, is the source of moral evil. That when God formed the universe, he separated from the soul of the world inferior souls, equal in number to the stars, and assigned to each its proper celestial abode. That these souls were sent down to earth to be imprisoned in mortal bodies: hence proceed the depravity and misery to which human nature is liable. That the soul is immortal; and by disengaging itself from all animal passions, and rising above sensible objects to the contemplation of the world of intelligence, it may be prepared to return to its original habitation. That matter never suffers annihilation; but that the world will remain. for ever: and that by the action of its animating principle, it accomplishes certain periods, within which every thing returns to its ancient place and state. This periodical revolution of nature is called the Platonic, or great year.‡

Plato believed the eternity of matter from which the universe was formed. Dr. Priestley observes, "The idea of proper creation was unknown to the ancient philosophers. They considered all intelligencies, and even material beings, as proceeding by emanation from the supreme Being, and to be again absorbed into his substance," See Priestley's Discourses relating to the Evidences of Revealed Religion,

t Plato differed from Aristotle in this respect. Aristotle maintained the eternity of the world in its present form. Plato taught that the first matter was in time reduced from a chaotic state into form, by the power of the Demiurgus. Encyc. vol. xv. p. 42.

Enfield, vol. i, pp. 227, 228.

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The Platonic system makes the perfection of morality to consist in living in conformity to the will of God, the only author of true felicity; and teaches that our highest good consists in the contemplation and knowledge of the supreme Being, whom he emphatically styles ro ayabor, the good.* The end of this knowledge is to make men resemble the Deity as much as is compatible with human nature. This likeness consists in the possession and practice of all the moral virtues.+

After the death of Plato many of his disciples deviated from his doctrines. His school was then divided into the old, the middle, and the new academy. The old academy strictly adhered to his tenets. The middle academy receded from his system, without entirely deserting it. The new academy, founded by Carneades, an African by birth, almost entirely relinquished the original doctrines of Plato, and verged towards the sentiments which were taught by the Sceptic philosophy.

*Plato certainly believed that in the divine nature there are two, and probably that there are three hypostases, whom he called το όν and το έν, νους and ψυχη. The first he considered as self-existent, and elevated far above all mind and all know❤ ledge; calling him, by way of eminence, the Being, or the One. The only attribute which he acknowledged in this person was goodness; and therefore he frequently styles him the ro ayabor, the good, or essential goodness. The second he considered as mind, the wisdom or reason of the first, and the maker of the world; and therefore he styles him youς, λογος, and δημιουργος. The third he always speaks of as the soul of the world; and hence calls him uxn, or Juxn rou Koopov. He taught that ψυχη, ψυχή του Κοσμου, the second is a necessary emanation from the first, and the third from the second, or perhaps from the first and second. In treating of the eternal emanation of the second and third hypostases from the first, Plato, and the philosophers of his academy, compare them to light and heat proceeding from the sun. Encyc. vol. xviii. p. 43.

+ Dacier's Plato, vol. i. p. 7, 8.

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