30. Photii Bibliotheca, ed. Bekker, cod. 33.

32. H. Strack, Jesus nach jüdischen Angaben, 1910; W. Bauer, Leben Jesu, 1909.

35. Curiosity of Tiberius: S. R., Cultes, vol. iii. p. 16.

36. Chapman in Journ. of Theological Studies, July and October, 1907; cf. S. R., Cultes, vol. iii. p. 21.

38. Art. Judas in Cheyne.

39. Goguel, Rev. hist. relig. 1910, p. 165; Juster, Les Juifs dans l'Empire, 1914, vol. ii. p. 135.

40. Frazer, Golden Bough, 2nd ed., iii. p. 191.

41. S. Reinach, Cultes, i. p. 232; Lagrange, Rem. sur l'Orpheus, 1910. 42. Art. Docetism in Hastings, Encycl of Rel., vol. iv.

43. S. Reinach, Cultes, iv. p. 200.

44. Conybeare, The Historical Christ, 1914; Guignebert, Problème de Jésus, 1921; Loisy, Rev. crit. 1916, ii. p. 72.

45. Strauss, Leben Jesu, gives all the reputed prophecies.-E. Carus Selvyn, The Oracles in the N. T., 1912; Rendel Harris, Origin of the Doctrine of Trinity, 1919 (a very early collection of prophecies from the O. T., used by Christian preachers before the Gospels).-On Psalm xxii. S. Reinach, Cultes, ii. p. 437; iii. p. 20; iv. p. 188.

46. Christian morals: Loisy, Rev. hist. litt. relig., 1920, p. 157.

47. E. Hennecke, Handbuch zu den N. T. Apokryphen, 1904; M. Lepin, Evang. canoniques et Evang. apocryphes, 1907; A. Robinson, The Gospel according to Peter and the Revelation of Peter, 1892 (cf. S. R., Cultes, vol. iii. p. 284); identity of the Gospels of Peter and of the Egyptians: Volter, in Zeitschrift für N. T. Wissenschaft, 1905, p. 368.-Attribution of the Fourth Gospel to Cerinthus: P. C. Sense (Lyons), The Fourth Gospel, 1899.

48. Roberts, Apocryphal Gospels and Revelations, 1890 (English translation); M. Nicolas, Etudes sur les Evangiles apocryphes, 1866; P. Peeters, L'évangile de l'Enfance, 1914.

49. Griffinhoofe, The unwritten Sayings of Christ, 1903.

50. A. Harnack, Die Apostelgeschichte, 2nd ed., 1911; E. Norden, Agnostos Theos, 1913; Loisy, Les Actes des Ap., 1920; Goguel, same subject, 1922; Jackson and Kirsopp Lake, The Acts, 1920.

51. Lipsius, Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten, 3 vols., 1883-1890.-Acts of Andrew and of Matthias: S. R., Cultes, i. p. 395; Thekla, ibid., iv. p. 229; L. Vouaux, Actes de Paul, 1913.

52. W. Ramsay, S. Paul, 1895; A. Sabatier, L'apôtre Paul, 1896; Goguel, L'apôtre Paul, 1904; A. Deissmann, Licht von Osten, 1908 (style of the Epistles compared with pagan_documents of the same period); A. Schweitzer, Geschichte der Paulus-Forschung, 1911.-Supposed influence of the Pagan mysteries on Paul: Renan, Etudes, 1864, p. 58; Revue du Clergé, April 1, 1913; Loisy, Les Mystères païens et le Myst. chrétien, 1919.-See also Loisy, Rev. hist. litt. relig., 1921-2, and his ed. of Galatians, 1916.

58. Aug. Sabatier. La doctrine de l'expiation et son évolution (in Etudes de théologie, 1901, p. 1); Rashdall, The Idea of Atonement, 1919.-On the Greek idea of responsibility, first collective and then individual: Glotz, La solidarité de la famille dans le droit criminel, 1904.

60. Art. Chronology in Cheyne (p. 812); Rev. du Clergé, October 15, 1913. 61. T. Calmes, Epitres catholiques, 1905; Reuss, La Bible, vol. xv. On the Epistles of Peter: S. R., Rev. archéol., 1908, i. p. 150; E. Robson, Second Epistle, 1915.

63. Art. Apocalypse, in Cheyne.-Astrology: F. Boll, Aus der Offenbarung Johannis, 1914; see Loisy, Rev. hist. litt. relig. 1922, p. 178.-On the date: S. R., Cultes, vol. ii. p. 356.-On the death of John: Cheyne, art. John, p. 2509.

65. S. R., Cultes, vol. iii. p. 284, and the ed. of Robinson, Lods, etc. 66. Loisy, Rev. hist. litt. relig., 1921, p. 305.-On the primitive hierarchy : J. Réville, Orig. de l'épiscopat, 1894; Batiffol, Etudes d'histoire, p. 223. 67. A. Lelong, Le Pasteur d'Hermas, 1912.

68. F. Kattenbusch, Das apostol. Symbol, 2 vols., 1894-1900; Vacandard, Le symbole des apôtres (in Études de critique, 1906, p. 1 et seq.).

70. Krüger, Altchristliche Literatur, 1895, pp. 38, 40; Massebieau, L'enseignement des apôtres, 1884; Loisy, Rev. hist. litt. relig., 1921, p. 443.

71. H. Waitz, Die Pseudoklementinen, 1904; art. Clementinen in Hauck. 72. Alfaric, Simon le magicien, 1922.

73. Apologies: Krüger, Altchristl. Literatur, 1895, p. 60 et seq.; A. Puech, Les Apologistes grecs, 1912.-Acts of the martyrs: Cabrol, art. Actes; Hauck, art. Acta martyrum; Dufourcq, Les "Gesta martyrum" romains, 3 vols., 1900-1907.—Antichrist: Renan, l'Antichrist, 1873; art. Antichrist, in Hauck and the Jewish Encycl.

74. H. Preuss, Die Vorstellungen vom Antichrist im späteren Mittelalter, 1906.

CHAPTER II

CHRISTIANITY : FROM ST. PAUL TO JUSTINIAN

First Christian communities-The Preaching of St. Paul.-Particularism and universalism-The Gnostics-Organisation of communities-The gift of tongues or glossolaly-The function of the Jewish synagogues-Persecution of Christians at Rome-Pliny's letter to Trajan-Motives for the persecutions-The martyrs-Christian virtues-Heresies; the influence of heretics on the Church-The concentration of the spiritual powerMontanism-Persecutions under Decius and Diocletian-Constantine and the edict of toleration-Persecution of pagans by Christians-The Donatist schism-Christian Monachism-Gradual changes in the ChurchArius and Athanasius; the dogma of the Trinity-The first murder for error of opinion: Priscillian-Monophysite heresy-The Coptic ChurchSt. Augustine and the doctrine of Purgatory-St. Jerome St. Gregory Nazianzen-St. Basil-St. John Chrysostom-St. Ambrose-The growth of luxury in the Church.

1. THE Jewish sect which proclaimed Jesus its master developed mainly in two small groups, one in Galilee, the other in Judæa. It was in Judæa, at Jerusalem, that the Apostles lived. While waiting for the glorious return of the Messiah, they organised their body with a view to the Kingdom of Heaven. It soon appeared necessary not to allow the double burden of preaching and distributing alms to rest upon the same men. For the latter task, deacons were instituted, among them a hellenising Jew named Stephen, who was accused of blasphemy by the orthodox Jews and stoned. He is called the Proto-martyr by the Church. This execution, which was followed by a persecution, accentuated the opposition between the synagogue and the dissenters; it was favourable to the propaganda of the latter, inasmuch as it caused their dispersal. This propaganda, chiefly among the Jewish Hellenic communities, though also among the heathen, was not initiated by St. Paul, who reaped the fruit and fame of an obscure activity prior to his own. One of the most successful missionaries in Samaria was the deacon Philip, who is said to have converted the treasurer of an Ethiopian princess, thus opening up Abyssinia to the new influences.

2. Saul, a native of Tarsus, said to have been a pupil of the learned Pharisee Gamaliel, had shown great zeal in the persecution. He set out for Damascus, to stir up the synagogue in that city. On the way he had a vision which converted him to the new sect. After preaching at Damascus, Saul retired for three years to Hauran. On returning to Jerusalem, he was favourably received by the Apostles, and went to Antioch with their delegate Barnabas. It was the Jews of Antioch, converted by Barnabas and Saul, who first took the name of Christians. This Greek town played a more important part than Jerusalem in the primitive history of Christianity.

3. From Antioch, Saul and Barnabas went to Cyprus, the birthplace of Barnabas. They were sympathetically received by the Roman proconsul, Sergius Paulus, and to mark his gratitude, as some think, Saul changed his name to Paul. After Cyprus they visited Asia Minor. Paul preached at Antioch in Pisidia, and at Lystra.

4. The question now arose as to whether, in order to enter the new communion, it was necessary to pass into it through the synagogue, undergo circumcision, and conform to all the Jewish rites. These obligations were very irksome to the pagans. In spite of the opposition of Peter and the other Apostles of Jerusalem, Paul abolished them, preached salvation for all, Jews and Greeks alike, and thus rendered the rapid extension of Christianity among the Gentiles possible. Hence the name "Apostle of the Gentiles" (Gentiles = heathen) applied to St. Paul, not without some injustice to those who had shown him the way.

5. This evolution of infant Christianity was laborious. The struggle between Jewish particularism and Christian universalism was a struggle between Peter and Paul, between Jerusalem and Antioch. A first conference, held at Jerusalem, brought about a compromise which was almost immediately violated by both parties. Paul pursued his universalist apostolate in Asia Minor, then at Philippi in Macedonia, at Thessalonica, at Athens, and at Corinth, whence he returned by way of Ephesus to Antioch. The evangelisation of Ephesus had been already begun by an Alexandrian Jew called Apollos; it soon made such progress

that the vendors of little objects of piety for the worship of the Ephesian Artemis were alarmed, and stirred up an insurrection, the prototype of many others which the Christians, and afterwards the reformers of Christianity, had to face.

6. Paul returned to Jerusalem in 57. A second conference, the echo of persistent dissensions, took place in the house of James, the reputed brother of Jesus. A Jewish riot then gave occasion for the intervention of the Roman Governor, who sent Paul to Cæsarea. Paul, who was a Roman citizen, demanded to be tried in Rome; he was sent there at the end of the year 59. He was already in touch with the little Christian community founded in the capital by Jewish merchants from Syria, having addressed an epistle to them from Corinth. We have no details of his trial at Rome, and his legendary journey to Spain or Great Britain is improbable. He is supposed to have been put to death in Rome in 64.

7. Mark, the cousin of Barnabas, had accompanied Paul to Italy; after the arrest of Paul, it is alleged that he became the secretary of Peter. Luke, a Greek physician at Antioch, was also converted by Paul, and laboured to propagate his doctrine. As to Peter, his travels belong to the domain of legend; it is probable that he died by violence in Palestine, and not in Rome, where tradition declares him to have been executed at the same time as Paul. It is true that before the end of the first century it was believed that Peter had been at Rome with Mark; but this belief was based on an apocryphal letter attributed to Peter, which was circulated about the year 90 (cf. above, I, § 61).

8. Nothing definite is known of the history of the other Apostles, and the stories told of them are mere fables. James, a pious Jew who was hostile to Paul, continued as the head of the Church at Jerusalem, and was killed in a disturbance. Matthew is supposed to have gone to Arabia, Andrew to the Crimea, Thomas to India, Philip to Syria. John was believed to have settled at Ephesus and to have lived there to an advanced age, surrounded by disciples, one of whom, the Presbyter John, may have been the author of the Fourth Gospel, of the Apocalypse, and of the letters attributed to the Apostle.