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plished without the reduction of the city and province of Candahar, which were then in the possession of the brothers of Mohammed, the late Affghan monarch of Persia, he commenced the war by an invasion of this province. The city of Candahar fell into his power in 1738, and many of the Affghans fled into the northern provinces of Hindustan, where they were hospitably received. Nâdir required of the emperor of Delhi that none of the Affghan fugitives should find shelter in his dominions, but as no attention was paid to his demands, he marched into Hindustan in the following year, and after defeating the Mogul troops, entered D-lhi on the 8th of March, where he seized the immense treasures which had been amassed in the course of nearly two centuries by the Mogul monarchs. Soon after his arrival, a report having been spread through the city that Nâdir was dead, the inhabitants made a general attack upon his soldiers. Nâdir in vain endeavoured to undeceive the populace; his moderation only inflamed the fury of those whom, according to Hindu historians, it was his desire to save; and at length, unable to restrain the people, he gave orders for a general massacre. These commands were too well obeyed; and from sunrise till noon the inhabitants were butchered by his soldiery without any distinction of sex and age. At the intercession of Mohammed, the emperor of Delhi, Nâdir at length commanded the massacre to be stopped; and it is recorded as a proof of the high state of discipline of his troops, that his commands were immediately obeyed. The number of those who perished in this massacre is variously stated by different writers. Fraser says that 120,000 persons were killed; but a Hindu historian reduces the number to only 8000. (Scott's Translation of the History of the Dekkan, vol. ii., p. 207.)

Nadir did not attempt to make any permanent conquests in Hindustan. He returned to Persia in the following year, and directed his attention towards the reduction of the nations on the north of Persia. He crossed the Oxus in order to punish the sovereign of Bokharah, who had, during his absence in Hindustan, made inroads into Khorassan. This monarch having submitted to his power, Nâdir next marched against the king of Khaurizm, whose dominions extended westward of Bokharah along both banks of the Oxus as far as the Caspian. The king of Khaurizm, refusing to submit to Nadir, was defeated in battle, taken prisoner, and put to death, 1740.

By these conquests Nadir had completely secured the peace of Persia. He had delivered his native country from the tyranny of the Affghans, and had extended its dominions to the Indus on the east, the Oxus on the north, and almost to the plains of Bagdad on the west. The Turks, who frequently endeavoured during his reign to extend their dominions, were always repulsed with loss; and the Russians were glad to enter into alliance with this all-powerful conqueror. Hitherto Nâdir had ruled with moderation and justice; but the latter part of his reign was disgraced by acts of the foulest tyranny and oppression. His conduct during this period has been described, even by a partial historian (Mirza Mahadi), as exceeding in cruelty and barbarity all that has been recorded in history of the most bloody tyrants. In 1743 his eldest son, Reza Kouli, who had distinguished himself by his bravery in many actions, was deprived of sight by order of his father. The possession of absolute power appears to have called forth in the mind of Nâdir, as it has often done in the minds of other absolute monarchs, some of the worst passions of human nature-avarice, jealousy, and cruelty. During the early part of his reign Nâdir was distinguished by the greatest liberality; and after he had obtained the immense wealth of the imperial house of Delhi, he at first remitted three years' taxes. But the possession of such enormous wealth appears to have excited in him the desire of accumulating more; and the taxes were increased to meet the insatiable demands of the royal treasury. It has been already stated that the proscription of the Sheah sect had tended to render him unpopular. Nâdir, aware of this, ceased to trust any of the native Persians, who belonged almost entirely to the Sheah sect, and placed his chief dependence on the Turks and Affghans in his army, who were Sunees. So great was his suspicion of his own subjects, that he is said to have formed the design of putting to death every Persian in the army. Some of the principal officers of his court, having learnt that their names were included in the proposed massacre, resolved to save themselves by the assassination of the tyrant, and, having entered

his tent during the night, put him to death, on the 19th or 20th of June, 1747. Nâdir was succeeded by his nephew Ali. 'The character of Nâdir,' observes Sir John Malcolm, 'is perhaps exhibited in its truest colours in those impressions which the memory of his actions has left upon the minds of his countrymen. They speak of hira as a deliverer and a destroyer; but while they expatiate with pride upon his deeds of glory, they dwell with more pity than horror upon the cruel enormities which disgraced the latter years of his reign; and neither his crimes nor the attempt he made to abolish their religion have subdued their gratitude and veneration for the hero, who revived in the breasts of his degraded countrymen a sense of their former fame, and restored Persia to her independence as a nation.' (History of Persia, vol. ii., p. 103.)

The life of Nadir Shah was written in Persian by his secretary, Mirza Mohammed Mahadi Khan, who attended him in all his expeditions, and has been translated into French by Sir W. Jones. Fraser also published from Persian MSS., which he obtained in India, The History of Nâdir Shah, formerly called Thamas Kuli Khan, the present Emperor of Persia,' Lond., 1742. Many interesting particulars relating to Nâdir are given by Hanway, in his Historical Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea,' Lond., 1753-4, which have considerable value, since Hanway had personal knowledge of many of the facts which he has recorded. A detailed life of Nadir is also given by Malcolm in his second volume of the 'History of Persia."

NÆSA. [ISOPODA, vol. xiii., p. 53.]

NÆVIUS CNEIUS, a native of Campania, and one of the earliest Roman poets, was older than Ennius, and the contemporary of Livius Andronicus. He served in the first Punic war, and afterwards wrote an epic poem on the same, De Bello Punico,' and another called 'Ilias Cypria.' He also wrote several dramas in imitation of the Greek, and other comedies on national or Roman subjects, such as Macchus exul,' Vindemiatores,' &c. Of all these, the titles and a few scattered lines are all that have come down to us. ('Fragmenta Poetarum Latinorum, quorum Opera non extant,' by Stephanus, 1564, and also Maittaire, Corpus Poetarum.')

Cicero, De Oratore,' ii. 69, 70, and iii. 12, praises him for his unaffected simplicity and native humour. It appears that he had a genius for the satirical, which proved unlucky to him; for, having exposed in his plays some of the leading men at Rome, among others some of the Metelli family, he was imprisoned and banished as an alien. He is said to have retired to Utica in Africa, where he died about B.C. 204, according to the chronicle of Eusebius. Aulus Gellius (iii. 3) says, that being imprisoned at Rome, he composed two comedies in his prison, through which he was restored to liberty.

NÆVUS (Nævus maternus, Mother Spot or Mole) is a congenital mark or morbid growth on a part of the skin. Nævi are of various kinds; some are merely yellowish or brown discolorations of the skin without any evident alteration in its structure; but the greater number are composed of an excessively vascular tissue, or a dense network of arteries and veins forming a reddish or livid substance, more or less elevated above the surface of the surrounding skin. A third kind are like extensive warty excrescences, and many of them are covered with thick-set coarse hair.

The nævi of the first kind rarely require treatment. Those of the second are more important from their tendency to increase, or to ulcerate and slough, or to produce severe hæmorrhage by the rupture of some of their vessels. Many plans have been suggested for their removal. If they be not seated on an exposed part, or if they do not show a tendency to increase, they had better be left without treatment. In other cases, the simplest and sometimes a sufficient means is the continued application of cold with moderately firm pressure; but a more certain method is to produce such an inflammation in them as may obliterate their vessels and reduce them to the common substance of scars. In small superficial nævi this may be effected by vaccinating them so as to produce a number of pustules on their surface; and in larger ones, by cauterising a part of their surface with fused potash, or nitric acid, or nitrate of silver, or by injecting some stimulant (as dilute nitric acid) into their tissue, or by making small incisions into them, or by passing hare-lip pins and

NAGPORE, a large town in the dominions of the Rajah of Berar, or Nagpore, situated in 21° 9' N. lat. and 79° 10' E. long. It stands on a plain 1100 feet above the level of the sea. The town, which is of very irregular form, is about 7 miles in circumference, the buildings being placed in a very straggling manner, as is often seen in India. The greater part of the dwellings are small thatched cottages. Some of the richer inhabitants have large brick-built houses with flat roofs, but the number of these is small, and is continually decreasing through the declining condition of the town. According to an enumeration made in 1825, Nag-puted. pore contained at that time,

Naia tripudians (reduced) in an erect and excited state. Colonel Briggs informs us that this active and deadly serpent is sometimes worshiped in temples in India, where it is pampered with milk and sugar by the priests, and he notices it as a surprising instance of the effect of kind treatment in subduing the most irritable spirits. The Hindus,' says the Colonel, in continuation, have a notion that the sagacity and the long-cherished malice of this worm are equal to that of man. I have seen them come out from their holes in the temples, when a pipe has been played to them, and feed out of the hand as tamely as any domestic animal; and it is when in this state of docility, so opposite to their shy but impetuous nature, the common people believe that the Deity has condescended to adopt that form. It seems probable that this hooded snake was the dragon of the heathen worship; and the shape of its head and its activity when in a state of excitement probably gave rise to the fable of its being winged.'

It is pretended that the root of the Ophiorrhiza mungos is a specific against the bite of this serpent. The priests and jugglers however, who make them dance to astonish or amuse the people, make all sure, there is little doubt, by extracting the poison-fangs..

This formidable species, or at least some species of hooded snake, according to the records of travellers, grows to a considerable length. Captain Percival gives the following account of its size and habits, in his 'Account of the Island of Ceylon,' 4to., 1805

The Cobra Capello, or hooded snake, is found here from six to fifteen feet long. Its bite is mortal. The natives find the herb pointed out by the ichneumon a remedy, if timely applied. When enraged and preparing to attack, it raises its head and body to the height of three or four feet in a spiral manner, while at the same time the remaining part of the body is coiled up to accelerate and give force to the spring. At this instant it distends from its head a membrane in the form of a hood, from which it receives its name. This membrane lies along the forehead and the sides of the neck, and is almost imperceptible till the animal gets into a state of irritation and is about to attack his foe. When the hood is erected it completely alters the appearance of the head, and discloses a curious streak in the shape of a pair of spectacles, and sometimes of a horse-shoe. The extension of this membrane seems intended by Providence to give warning to all those within this animal's reach that he is preparing to attack them. Without this signal he would be very dangerous indeed, as his motions afterwards are too rapid to be avoided. I have more than once been an eye-witness to instances where the fatal bite of this snake was escaped from merely by the object of his vengeance timely observing his preparations. One remarkable characteristic of these dangerous serpents is their fondness for music. Even when newly caught they seem to listen with pleasure to the notes, and even to writhe themselves into attitudes. The Indian jugglers improve greatly on this instinct, and, after taming them by degrees, instruct them even to keep time to their flageolet.'

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part of the left pectoral muscle, and keeping its hold about two or three seconds, when Dr. Davy succeeded in shaking it off. The hen, which at first seemed to be little affected, died eight hours after she was bitten.

The reader will find other experiments recorded by the author; but the bite which was followed by the most speedy death was inflicted by another Cobra de Capello upon a young cock. The snake fastened on the thigh, and inflicted rather a severe wound, from which some blood flowed. The cock became instantly lame, and in less than a minute was unable to stand. In about five minutes his respiration became hurried and rather laborious; some alvine dejections took place. In about ten minutes he appeared to be in a comatose state, and for about five minutes he continued in this state, his respiration gradually becoming more feeble and laboured. In seventeen minutes, when his breathing was hardly perceptible, he was seized with a convulsive fit, which in the course of the next minute returned four or five times, each less violent than the former, and the last proved fatal.' (An Account of the Interior of Ceylon, &c., by John Davy, M.D., F.R.S., 4to., London, 1821.) We owe to Dr. Cantor, who has added so much to our knowledge of the natural history of Asiatic serpents, the introduction of a new genus of hooded snakes, Hamadryas, which will probably find its proper place in the series as a subgenus of Naia. The doctor himself gives it a position between that genus and Bungarus (Daudin), which two forms, in his opinion, it will be found to connect together

Hamadryas. (Cantor.)

Generic Character.-Head broad, subovate, deplanate, with a short obtuse rostrum, covered above with fifteen scuta. Cheeks tumid. Eyes large, prominent, pupil round. Nostrils widely opened within the confine of two scuta. Gape very ample, subundulated. behind which are the maxillary teeth. Neck dilatable. Poison-fangs anterior, Body thick, smooth, imbricated with smooth scales disposed in oblique rows. Tail short, covered with scuta and scutella, its apex acute. (Cantor.)

Example, Hamadryas ophiophagus. (Cantor.)
striæ, abdomen glaucous, marbled with black. The Hin-
Description.-Above olive-green, girt with black sagittal
dustanee name is Sunkr-Choar.
Locality.-Bengal.

effect of the poison, and the history of this serpent.
Habits, &c.-Dr. Cantor thus describes the habits, the
The Hamadryas, like the Bungarus, Hydrus, and Hy-

and thus, like the latter, connects the venomous serpents
with isolated poison-fangs to the harmless, which possess
a complete row of maxillary teeth.

chiefly characterised by a distribution of the teeth similar Of the terrestrial venomous serpents, the Bungarus is to that of the Hamadryas, which, also partaking of the chief characteristic of the genus Naja, viz. that of forming a hood or disc, constitutes an immediate link between the genera Bungarus and Naja.

The largest Cobra de Capello seen by Dr. Davy in Ceylon was nearly six feet long; and he adds that the general length is between two and four feet. The colour varied: those of a light colour were called high-caste snakes by the natives, and those of a dark colour low-caste. 'The natives,' says Dr. Davy, 'in general rather venerate this snake than dread it. They conceive that it belongs to another world,* and that when it appears in this it is merely as a visitor; they imagine that it possesses great power, that it is some-drophis, has a few maxillary teeth behind the poison-fangs, what akin to the gods, and greatly superior to man. In consequence they superstitiously refrain from killing it, and always avoid it, if possible. Even when they find one in their house, they will not kill it, but, putting it into a bag, throw it into water. They believe that this snake has a good and generous disposition, and that it will do no harm to man, unless provoked.' Dr. Davy gives a pleasing picture of the irritations and soothings with which the snakecharmers excite and allay the temper of this serpent. He records several instances of the operation of the poison, the first arising from a serpent found in a bag floating down the Kalang-ganga. It was about five feet long, and about six inches in circumference in the broadest part. This snake bit a hen, fixing its fangs in the skin covering the lower Dr. Davy, in his chapter on the Singalese System of the Universe, has the following passage:-'The Naga-bhawené, that lies under Asoora-bhawené, is also 10,000 leagues in circumference. It is a hollow sphere, without mountains or hills, lakes or rivers, and entirely destitute of vegetation, with the exception of a single tree, called Parasattoo, that answers for all others, bearing not only an immeuse variety of flowers and fruits, but everything else that is desirable. The Naga-bhawené is the abode of a numerous race of snakes, similar in kind to the hooded snake, and of great size, beauty, and power, capable of passing from one part of the world to another, and shining like gods; so that, though they have no light but that which emanates from their own bodies, they enjoy perpetual day infinitely brighter than ours. In their former lives on earth they were persons of remarkable purity and goodness, almost deserving of becoming gods; but their high virtues were sullied by some vice, particularly that of malice, to which they owe their present forms. Though snakes, they are Bhoodists, and are in possession of a relic and worship in temples. They reside in well-furnished houses, and eat and drink, and enjoy society. By merely wishing, they immediately have any article of food they want; and whatever it may be, it always appears in the form of a frog. They are under a regal government, and are distributed into castes, like the Singalese. Their king, Mahakilla-naga-rajaya, is in every respect superior to the rest; it was with his assistance that the gods and Asooras churned the milky sea; he wound himself round a rock, and they, pulling at his two extremities, set the mass in motion and accomplished their work. Were these suakes disposed, they could destroy the whole of the inhabitants of the earth by a single blast of their poisonous breath; but they are naturally mild and benevolent, and do harm only when provoked. In cousequence, they are rather venerated than dreaded; and it is on this account that the common hooded snake is so much respected.'

appearance between the Naja and the Hamadryas, when In consequence of the strong resemblance in the general first my attention became attracted to the latter, I thought I could refer this serpent to that genus; and it was not until I was able to examine a specimen whose poison-fangs were untouched (those of the first specimens I saw having been drawn by the natives, who are greatly afraid of this serpent), that I discovered the maxillary teeth behind the poison-fangs.

Hamadryas ophiophagus differs from the Naja tripu

dians:

1. By its maxillary teeth.

2. By the strongly developed spines on the os occipitale

inferius.

3. By the integuments covering the head.

4. By the integuments covering the abdominal surface

of the tail.

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5. By its colour. '6. By its size.

According to the natives, the Hamadryas feeds chiefly upon other serpents: in one I dissected I found remains of good-sized Monitor, which fact may account for its arboreal habits, as I have in Bengal, along the banks of the rivers, observed numbers of those large lizards among the branches of trees watching for birds.

The power of abstaining from food, generally speaking,

so characteristic of the serpents, is but in a comparatively
small degree possessed by this species; the most protracted
starvation amounts to a period of about one month; while
the Vipera elegans, the Naja tripudians, and the Bungarus
annularis, have, without inconvenience, been confined in
cages without any food for more than ten months. Two
specimens of the Hamadryas in my possession were regu-
larly fed by giving them a serpent, no matter whether
venomous or not, every fortnight. As soon as this food is
brought near, the serpent begins to hiss loudly, and, ex-
panding the hood, rises two or three feet; and retaining this
attitude, as if to take a sure aim, watching the movements
of the prey, darts upon it in the same manner as the Naja
tripudians does. When the victim is killed by poison, and
by degrees swallowed, the act is followed by a lethargic
state, lasting for about twelve hours. Such of the other
Indian venomous serpents, the habits of which I have had
opportunity to study from life, show themselves much
inclined to avoid other serpents, however ready they are to
attack men or animals when provoked or driven by hunger;
and I am not aware of any other of those serpents being
recorded as preying upon its own kind. A short time ago
however, during my sojourn at the Cape of Good Hope,
I received from high authority the following fact, which
throws a light upon the habits of the Naja of Southern
Africa, one of which, when being captured, threw up the
body of a Vipera arietans (Vip. brachyurus, Cuvier), which
bore marks of having been submitted to the process of di-
gestion.

'The Hamadryas, like the greater number of Indian
serpents, evinces a great partiality to water; with the ex-
ception of the tree-serpents (Leptophina, Bell), they all not
only drink, but also moisten the tongue, which, as this
organ is not situated immediately in the cavity of the
mouth, become in the serpents two different acts.* Spe-
cimens of this serpent in my possession changed the skin
every third or fourth month, a process which takes place in
all the Indian serpents several times during the year. The
Hamadryas is very fierce, and is always ready not only to
attack, but to pursue, when opposed: while the Cophias,
the Vipera, the Naja, and the Bungarus, merely defend
themselves; which done, they always retreat, provided no
further provocation is offered. The natives of India assert
that individuals are found upwards of twelve feet in length,
a statement probably not exaggerated, as I have myself
seen specimens from eight to ten feet in length, and from
six to eight inches in circumference. I have often heard it
asserted that "Cobras" (which name is naturally enough
given to every hooded serpent) have been met with of an
enormous size, but I strongly doubt their belonging to the
genus Naja: among a considerable number which have
come under my observation, I never saw any exceeding five
to six feet in length, while the common size is about four
feet. Some time before I discovered the Hamadryas, I was
favoured by J. W. Grant, Esq., of the Hon. Company's
Civil Service, with an interesting description of a gigantic
hooded serpent he had observed in the upper provinces, and
which, he remarked, was not a Naja. By inspection this
gentleman denied the Hamadryas to be identical with the
above-mentioned.

'The natives describe another hooded serpent, which is said to attain a much larger size than the Hamadryas, and which, to conclude from the vernacular name, Mony Choar," is perhaps another nearly allied species.

The fresh poison of the Hamadryas is a pellucid tasteless fluid, in consistence like a thin solution of gum arabic in water; it reddens slightly litmus paper. which is also the case with the fresh poison of the Cophias viridis, Vipera elegans, Naja tripudians, Bungarus annularis, and Bung. coeruleus: when kept for some time it acts much stronger upon litmus; but after being kept it loses considerably, if not entirely, its deleterious effects.

M. Schlegel is of opinion that serpents never drink, (Essai sur la Phy siogn. des Serpens, Partie Générale.) As mentioned above, I have had opportunities of ascertaining that the greater number of Indian serpents are very fond of water, a fact which I am aware has also been observed in the African serpents by the eminent naturalist Dr. A. Smith, whose valuable discoveries, which he is at present engaged in publishing, will bring to light many facts, of which we are at present in almost total ignorance, concerning the habits of animals, particularly those of the Reptiles. + The Cobra Capello described by Captain Percival (ante, p. 62) may have been one of these gigantic hooded serpents.

M. Schlegel asserts (loc. cit., p. 34) the venom is "ui alcalin ni acide." The only way in which I can account for this mistake from a man who ranks among the first Erpetologists, is by supposing, that M. Schlegel himself never had an opportunity of testing the poison of a living serpent; for besides the five above-mentioned genera of Indian venomous serpents, I found the fresh

'From a series of experiments upon living animals, the effects of this poison come nearest to those produced by that of the Naja tripudians, although it appears to act less quickly. The shortest period within which this poison proved fatal to a fowl was fourteen minutes, whilst a dog expired in two hours eighteen minutes after being bitten. It should however be observed that the experiments were made during the cold season of the year.'

A specimen of the present genus (Hamadryas), in the Collection of the Society, was upon the table, having been presented to the Museum by Sir Stamford Raffles, but without any facts respecting its history, or the locality in which he had procured it. (Zool. Proc., 1838.)

For an example of the African species see ASP. It is worthy of observation with reference to the contest in the presence of Pharaoh between Moses and Aaron and the magicians of Egypt (Exodus, vii. 9-12), that it is stated, on good authority, that the modern Egyptian jugglers possess the power of throwing the Asp (Naia Haje) into a state of catalepsy, and rendering it stiff and immoveable, in other words, changing it into a rod, by pressing the nape with the fingers.

NAI'ADES, or NAYADES, Lamarck's name for a family of fresh-water conchifers (Naiada), comprising the genera Unio, Hyria, Anodonta, and Iridina. The third of these genera has been of late years more correctly named Anodon. Dr. Leach and Mr. Bowdich first made this alteration, and they have been followed by most English zoologists. The genus Unio was first established by Bruguière.

The position which the genera constituting this family occupied in the systems of the leading zoologists will be seen by a reference to the article MALACOLOGY. Other genera were added by authors, to which it will not, at present, be necessary to advert. Mr. Swainson, in the first series of his interesting Zoological Illustrations,' some time ago observed, that having paid some attention to the fluviatile bivalves, and possessing a most extensive collection of specimens, he was clearly of opinion that no permanent characters will be found sufficient to retain either the genera Dipsas, Leach, Hyria, Lamarck, or Alasmodonta, Say, much less,' continues Mr. Swainson, that of Damaris, Leach, and another, whose name I forget, made by Dr. Turton* from the same shell as Leach's Damaris, viz. Mya Margaritifera of Linnæus. In fact, the line of demarcation between Unio and Anodon appears to rest on the first possessing cardinal teeth, and the latter having none.' In the second series of his Zoological Illustrations Mr. Swainson gives the following synopsis of the genera-Unio, Hyria, Iridina, Anodon, Alasmodon.

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The North American rivers abound with this family; and Mr. Lea of Philadelphia has contributed most largely to our knowledge of the habits of these animals, and has made great additions to the species. The result of his labours, as regards classification, we shall presently show.

Reproduction, Habits, Organization, &c.-Mr. Lea, in his Preliminary Remarks,' notices Lamarck's statement that the animal of Anodon, which is essentially the same with that of Unio, is hermaphrodite, and seems viviparous; for the eggs pass into the oviduct placed along the superior branchiæ, where the young are found with their shells complete. Mr. Lea then tells us that he dissected a specimen of Anodonta undulata nearly three inches long, and found the oviducts charged with about 600,000 (as nearly as he could calculate) young shells perfectly formed, both valves being distinctly visible with the microscope. In his second volume bearing the title of Observations on the Genus Unio,' &c., the same author informs us that, believing that the oviducts would present the means of discrimination in some species, he having found them to be so very different in Unio irroratus, his attention had been particularly addressed to these organs in the few and small species of his vicinity. Whilst engaged in this investigation, Dr. Kirtland, of Poland, Ohio, informed Mr. Lea of his ability to distinguish the female and male shells of the same species, without having recourse to the included animal; and, shortly afterwards, Dr. Kirtland's paper on the subject appeared in the American Journal of Science and Arts,' vol. xxvi. Mr. Lea's attention now became more addressed to sexual characters, and he states that a very short series of exami

poison of different species of marine serpents (Hydrus) to possess the property
of turning litmus paper red. The same fact with the Crotalus is noticed by
Dr. Harlan, who says," The poison of the living Crotalus, tested in numerous
instances with litmus paper, &c., invariably displayed acid properties." (Vide
Harlan, Medical and Physical Researches, p. 501, sq.)'
* Mysca?