is so clearly kept up, one word never being put for another, that the Hebrew scholar will readily admit that there is nothing like the original Scriptures,-no writings of human skill can bear comparison with them. When Our Saviour proved the authenticity of the Jewish Canon, of the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms, (Luke 24. 44,) he also proved its inspiration by saying that all things written therein concerning Him must be fulfilled. Nothing could have been written of Him before his incarnation, unless the writers had in them the spirit of Christ, as it is said 1 Peter 1. 12, "The spirit of Christ which was in them, testified before hand the sufferings of Christ, and the glory that should follow." | before the same, or very nearly the same, books were acknowledged by the Christians of all countries. The persecutions under which the professors of the Gospel continually laboured, and the want of a national estab lishment of Christianity, prevented for several centuries, any general assembly of Christians for the purpose of settling the canon of their Scriptures." Thus then the reception of the canon of the New Testament has not been dictated by any man or body of men, but by the unanimous consent, and the sincere conviction of the Christian churches. The council of Laodicea did not decree what was the canon of Scripture, it only said, that no books save those of the canon (to which it alludes as pre-existing) should be read in the churches. The first regular list that we have is by Origen, but all the books are referred to as authentic by other and earlier writers. Clemens Alexandrinus says they were received by all the churches up to his time. Tertullian referring to the Epistles, says, "If you wish to see the ipsæ literæ authenticæ, the authentic letters themselves, (which seems as if he meant the autographs) go to Rome, to Corinth, to Philippi, &c.," where these Epistles had been preserved in the churches. Tertullian also says that the Revelations were received from the beginning until his day. As for the pseudo-Gospels and Apocryphal Epistles, there is very satisfactory proof that they were never unanimously received. We have the testimony of the best writers in the second century, that the primitive Churches never admitted any Gospels but those now in use, and that all the books of the New Testament were publicly read in the Christian congregation; copies of them were widely spread, and publicly appealed to in the controver sies whether with Jews, Pagans, or the early Heretics. The truth and authenticity of the New Testament is proved by the undesigned corroborations of many profane writers (not Christians) as to facts and persons mentioned in those Scriptures. Such as the corroborations of Josephus, Diogenes Laërtius, Pausanias, &c., &c.; the admissions of the enemies of Christianity; Celsus, Porphyry, and Julian, confessed that the books of the New Testament were written by those persons to whose authorship they are ascribed. By the collation of hundreds of MSS. of the New Testament Scriptures, written at different periods, in different, and often very remote countries, by various persons: in none of which has any variation been found affecting faith or doctrine. Indeed as to the latter, it has been wonderfully and mercifully arranged, so that no doctrine rests upon the basis of any single text, but can be proved directly or inferentially from others: as is observed, (2Peter 1. 20,) that no prophecy of Scripture is of private interpretation. By the working out in the person of Christ of the types of the Law, and prophecies of the Old Testament, in the most full and clear manner: in fact, in such a As to the inspiration of the New Testament, we will manner as to prove that in Christ alone they could remark first, its high and unmixed and ever consistent be so clearly fulfilled, and in none after or before Him. tone of morality, and its sublime and pure doctrines, Again, the New Testament is authenticated by the such as no human compositions have ever attained to. very extraordinary and uncommon professions made Next the Prophecies contained in it, with their present by Our Saviour to his followers. What inducements fulfilment; such as the prediction by Jesus Christ of the does he hold out to them? IIonour? Riches? Ease? death he should die, (John 13. 32,33,)—the destruction Any kind of advantage? No! He promises them of the Temple, and the desolation of Jernsalem, (Matt. that they shall be delivered up to be afflicted, and 24,)-the prophecies in the Revelations concerning the they shall be killed, (Matt. 24. 9,) that they shall be Seven Churches,-Laodicea which was rebuked and put into prison, and betrayed by parents and breth-threatened with destruction has fallen, and is a heap of ren, and kinsfolk, and friends, (Luke 21,) that, he that killeth them shall think he doeth God service. (John 16). Does he promise his followers even fame among men, for which many have been content to become hypocrites? No! He tells them even that they shall be hated of all nations for his sake, (Matt. 24). Strange inducements whereon to found a falsehood! Yet in spite of these repelling assertions, Jesus found many followers even among the rich, who had every thing to lose! And, in a short time, the seed sown by a few simple fishermen and peasants grew to a mighty tree whose branches crushed down to earth the lofty and sumptuous temples of their opponents. ruins,-Ephesus threatened with the removal of its candlestick, viz., its ministry, has lost its ancient name, and subsists only as a village, with a handful of Christians,— Sardis, which had left but a few that had not defiled their garments, has fallen to ruin, but a few Christians reside in the village of Sart,-Pergamus, partly commended, partly reproved, exists but in part, having been overthrown by the Turks, but partly rebuilt, and having a tolerable congregation of Christians, the same may be said of Thyatira,but Smyrna and Philadelphia, which were commended and encouraged, still exist in a prosperous state, with large and flourishing Christian communities. We know not how to conclude this article better than in Concerning the Canon of the New Testament, we the words of the learned and amiable Sir William Jones, cannot do better than quote from Tomlin, Bishop of in his eight anniversary discourse. "The collection of Lincoln: "The Canon of the New Testament consists tracts which we call from their excellence 'the Scriptures,” of twenty-seven books, which were written by eight dif- contain more exquisite beauty, purer morality, more ferent authors, all of whom were cotemporary with our important history, and finer strains both of poetry and Saviour. These books were written at different times, eloquence than could be collected within the same comand at places remote from each other; and when the pass from all other books that ever were composed in latest of them was published, the Gospel had been any age or idiom. The two parts of which the Scrippreached, and churches founded, in many parts of Europe, tures consist are connected by a chain of compositions Asia, and Africa. Different churches at first received which bear no resemblance in form or style to any that different books, according to their situation and circum-can be produced from the stores of Grecian, Indian, stances: their Canons were gradually enlarged, and it Persian, or even Arabian learning; the antiquity of was not long, though the precise time is not known, these compositions no man doubts, and the unrestrained SCRIPTURE application of them to events long subsequent to their publication is a solid ground of belief, that they were genuine predictions, and consequently inspired." M. SCROLL. See BOOK, WRITING, &c. SCULPTURE. The prohibition against the use of images in the second commandment prevented the Hebrews from devoting much attention to the arts of sculpture and painting; ornamental details in architecture were similarly neglected until the erection of David's palace and Solomon's temple; indeed, the principal artists employed in both these structures appear to have been brought from Phoenicia and Egypt. The pyramids, the temples and palaces of Luxor and Karnac, "the trophied sepulchres of the kings," and the graven sarcophagi, afford full proof of the early advance of all the arts of design in Egypt. One great cause of this progress is the abundance of stone suited to ornamental architecture found in the mountain quarries near the Nile. These supplied blocks of such enormous size that columns and even colossal statues were usually finished and polished in the quarries, from whence they were drawn on an inclined road, levelled for the purpose, to the Nile, and then conveyed in boats to their place of destination. Few nations have equalled the Egyptians in the art of giving a polish to granite; specimens of their pillars now preserved in the British Museum exhibit a gloss and smoothness which has defied the effects of time and exposure. In the first engraving to this article three Egyptians are exhibited polishing a pillar, and as the process was performed entirely by the hand, it must have been both tedious and expensive. In awful state The Temple rear'd its everlasting gate, Among the numerous monumental portraitures of the | it was to occupy in the building. Bishop Heber alludes building art found on the walls of the Egyptian sepul- to the previous preparation of the stones for the building chres are some which explain to us a curious circum- of the Temple in the following beautiful lines:stance mentioned by the sacred historian in the account of the building of Solomon's temple. It is recorded that "the house, when it was in building, was built of stone made ready before it was brought thither; so that there was neither hammer, nor axe, nor any tool of iron heard in the house, while it was in building." (1 Kings 6. 7.) This previous squaring and preparation of the stones is delineated frequently; the blocks are shown accurately measured under the superintendence of a principal architect, the shape into which it is intended that they should be cut being marked on the rough stone with a dark line so as to form an accurate guide to the stonecutter. When the block was finished it received a mark or number which pointed out the place The walls of the palaces were inlaid with precious metals, ebony and ivory, elaborately carved. This custom was imitated by the Jews, for in the 45th Psalm, which prophetically refers to the union between Christ and his Church, but which primarily is a hymeneal ode on the marriage of Solomon with the daughter of the Egyptian Pharaoh, we find a reference to "the ivory palaces" prepared for the reception of that princess. (Psalm 45. 8.) Menelaus, who visited Egypt on his return from Troy, is said by Homer to have decorated Egyptians sculpturing a Statue and squaring Stones his palace at Sparta after the Egyptian fashion; hence Telemachus, who was only accustomed to the less luxurious edifices of Ithaca, could not restrain his admiration when he beheld the splendid walls and ceilings of his Spartan host. He thus addresses Pisistratus, View'st thou unmov'd, O ever honour'd most, These prodigies of art and wondrous cost? Above, beneath, around the palace shines The sumless treasures of exhausted mines; The spoils of elephants the roofs inlay, And studded amber darts a golden ray. Such, and not nobler, in the realms above, My wonder dictates is the throne of Jove.-Odyssey, iv. According to Lucan, the Ptolemies revived all the ancient splendour of the Pharaohs in their palatial edifices. His description of the banqueting hall of Cleopatra gives us some very interesting information respecting the extent to which these expensive decorations were carried, and it will serve to give some notion of the gorgeous palace erected by Solomon which was built after the model of the Egyptian Pharaohs. Rich as some fane by lavish zealots rear'd, The lovely emerald's never-fading green.-Pharsalia, x. The art of sculpture was governed by very strict rules: there were fixed proportions established for every figure, which the statuary was not permitted to violate; and hence arises the great sameness in the Egyptian statues, and the stiffness for which they are all remarkable. Isaiah describes the process of idol-making very minutely. "The carpenter stretcheth out his rule; he marketh it out with a line; he fitteth it with planes, and he marketh it out with the compass; and maketh it after the figure of a man, according to the beauty of a man; that it may remain in his house." (Isai. 44. 13.) The mode of proceeding will easily be understood by a reference to the accompanying engraving. When a proper block of marble or granite had been procured by the sculptor, the surface was first smoothed, and parallel lines drawn from top to bottom; other lines were then drawn, at equal distances, from side to side, so as to divide the whole into a series of squares. The size of these squares was proportioned to the size of the figure, but the number of them was invariable, whatever might be the dimensions of the figure: nineteen of these squares, according to some authorities, and twenty-one and one-fourth according to others, were allowed for the height of the human body: when smaller figures, or ornaments, were introduced, the squares were subdivided into smaller squares, proportioned to the less figure. The outline was then traced, and its proportions were invariable: this, which to moderns would seem the most important part of the process, required no great exertion of skill in the Egyptian artist. It was then inspected by the master-sculptor, who wrote on various parts of it, in hieratic characters, such directions as he thought it necessary to give to the inferior artists who actually cut the figure. The colossal statue on which the workmen in the accompanying engraving are engaged, appears so far advanced towards completion that the instructions of the master-sculptor have been chiselled away. We are informed by Diodorus Siculus, that the most eminent statuaries always went to reside for a time in Egypt, as modern artists do in Italy, to study the principles of their art. He particularly mentions Telecles and Theodorus, the sons of Rhocus, who made the celebrated statue of the Pythian Apollo at Samos, after, what he calls, "the Egyptian fashion." He explains this fashion to be the separate execution of the parts, for the statue was divided into two parts, at the groin: one half was cut by Telecles at Samos, and the other by Theodorus at Ephesus; yet, when they were joined together, they fitted so exactly that the whole seemed the work of one hand. And this seemed the more admirable, when the attitude of the statue was considered, for it had its hands extended, and its legs at a distance from each other, in a moving posture. We thus see that Egyptian sculpture was almost wholly a mechanical process; the laws of the country prohibited the intervention of novelty in subjects considered sacred; and the more effectually to prevent the violation of prescribed rules, it was ordained that the profession of an artist should not be exercised by any common or illiterate person. Mr. Wilkinson, indeed, has shown the great probability of the higher artists having been included in the ranks of the priesthood. In some instances, however, we find reason to believe that the Egyptian artists broke through these trammels. In the two granite statues of lions presented by Lord Prudhoe to the British Museum, we perceive a boldness and freedom of execution scarcely compatible with a strict adherence to mechanical rule. This rejection of the rigid Egyptian SCULPTURE standard may, perhaps, be ascribed to the fact of these statues having been sculptured in Upper Egypt, where the conventional rules of caste appear to have been less strictly observed than in the vicinity of Thebes and Memphis. The earlier statues of the Egyptian artists, so far as their age has been ascertained, seem to possess more freedom, though less minute finish, than those of a more recent date. One great impediment to the progress of Egyptian art was the preference shown for colossal statues, some of which were of so stupendous a size, that even in the present day, with all the mechanical contrivances of modern ingenuity, we should view the transport of such Colossal Statue drawn to its place. masses as a difficulty that could scarce be surmounted. But, from the representation we have copied in the accompanying engraving of a colossal statue removed from the place in which it was wrought to that which it was destined to occupy, it appears that the Egyptians used human force only, and supplied their want of mechanical facilities for transport by employing a vast number of labourers. We see that the Colossus was mounted on a sledge and drawn along a species of railroad, previously levelled, by mere human force. A man stands on the front of the sledge pouring oil, or water, on the rails, to facilitate the transit, while another, standing on the knees of the statue, beats time with his hands, in order that all the workmen should pull togeiher. On these occasions there was a general holiday along the road by which the statue passed; crowds of priests and warriors formed a procession in front, shouting and waving branches of palm; while relays of labourers followed behind, ready to take the places of those who might become weary. The whole representation gives a very vivid impression of the perverse idolatry of the Egyptians, and adds fresh force to the prophet's denunciation: "Thus said the Lord God; I will also destroy the idols, and I will cause their images to cease out of Noph (Memphis); and there shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt: and I will put a fear in the land of Egypt." (Ezek. 30. 13.) T. Scythian Cavalry. SCYTHIAN. The tribes inhabiting Northern Europe and Asia were called, in a very vague sense, Scythians, by the Greeks and Romans; to the Hebrews they were probably known by the names Gog and Magog. From the remotest ages hordes of these fierce barbarians have been accustomed to migrate from their steppes and deserts into the more fertile regions of the south; and hence they were usually regarded with equal fear and hatred by civilized nations. Their principal military strength was in their cavalry; the horses and men were covered with a kind of scale-armour, made of the sliced hoofs of horses, which, we are told, was so strong as to turn aside an arrow, or blunt a sabre. This was more particularly the costume of that division of the Scythian race called Sarmatians. St. Paul uses the word "Scythian" as synonymous with "barbarian ;" and from the way in which he alludes to the people, we may conclude that the doctrines of Christianity were preached to some portion of these wild tribes so early as the Apostolic age. C. SCYTHOPOLIS. See BETHSAN. SEA. The Hebrews gave the name of sea to all great collections of water, such as lakes, and even rivers. Thus the Lake of Tiberias, or Cinnereth, in Galilee, was called the Sea of Galilee, Gennesareth, or Tiberias; the Lake of Sodom, the Dead Sea, &c. Isaiah (11. 15) calls the Delta, at the mouth of the Nile, "the tongue of the Egyptian Sea." The only seas, properly so called, mentioned in Scripture, are the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. See the articles enumerated. C. SEAL or SIGNET, Onn chotam. The substantive Seal is derived from the verb on chalam, which signifies to close up as with some glutinous substance. Pliny says that seals were not known among the Greeks as early as the Trojan war; but that they closed their letters by rolling thread or flax round them, and securing the string with several knots. Seals, however, were known to the Hebrews at a much earlier period. Judah, who lived before the founding of the kingdom of Troy, gave his signet as a pledge to Tamar (Gen. 38. 18.) From the derivation of the substantive, it is evident that seals were used to close up, to obstruct from free access, by setting some peculiar mark on some adhesive substance, such as bees'-wax, pitch, gum, or some resinous matter, placed over a fold, tie, or opening. Letters and other documents were anciently written as scrolls, rolled up, a string passed round them, the adhesive matter placed on the tie, and then stamped with the signet. The seal, or signet, was worn on the finger set in a ring, (Jerem. 22. 24,) or on the arm set in a bracelet. (Cantic. 8. 6.) This verse of the Canticles also says, "Set me as a seal on thine heart," which is generally understood to be an allusion to the engraved pectoral of the high-priest, who wore the names of the twelve tribes engraven, like signets, over his heart. Others think that it means a jewel engraven like a signet, with the name of the beloved person, and hung round the neck, as engraved stones or gems were worn as amulets in later times. Before the engraving of gems was known, or much practised, the seal was made of metal, either silver or gold: sometimes the ring was of iron, and the signet part of gold. In the early times, such as in the days of Judah, it is most probable that the word or device, which was the distinguishing mark of each particular signet, was raised or embossed in the metal in alto relievo. Afterwards, in the time of Moses, when the engraving of jewels, "as the engraving of a signet," is spoken of, such engraving is plainly "cutting into," as may be understood from the words used, which are cheresh, signifying also to plough, to make furrows; and л patach, signifying to open, scil., by incision. Stiff adhesive clay of the nature of mortar seems to have been used sometimes for the purposes of sealing; see Job 38. 14, "It is turned as clay to the seal." The word here translated clay, chomar, is used (Gen. 11. 3,) as mortar for building. It was probably with this that the chief priests and Pharisees sealed up the stone of Christ's sepulchre; closing the parts that came together with mortar, and impressing it while fresh with their signets. In the same manner might be sealed up the wells or fountains, as alluded to in Canticles 4. 12, "A garden inclosed is my sister, my spouse, a spring shut up, a fountain sealed." Springs and fountains were covered over with a large stone (Gen. 29. 3,) to preserve them from dirt, and might be sealed to preserve the ownership of them, as they were valuable possessions, and sometimes occasioned disputes. (Gen. 21. 25, and 26. 20.) The double allusion, both as to covering from injury and preserving the right of possession, is applicable to Solomon's spouse, allegorically a sealed fountain. On this verse Bishop Patrick remarks, "Cotovicus, in his Itinerary, says, that there is a fountain three miles from Bethlehem southward, called by the name of Fountain Sealed; to which he went, and was told that water still runs from thence in pipes to the place where Solomon's temple stood. But he himself intimates, that herein he follows an uncertain report." This spring, however, which is even yet called the "Sealed Fountain," still supplies with water the three remarkable reservoirs, called Solomon's Pools, about an hour's distance from Bethlehem. It arises under ground, and there is no access to it but by a hole like a narrow well. After descending this for about four yards, Maundrell says, the traveller comes to a vaulted room, forty-five feet long and twenty-five broad, adjoining which is a similar room, but of smaller size. Both are covered with handsome and very ancient stone arches, supposed to be the work of Solomon. Here are four sources of the water, which flows into a kind of basin, and thence by a subterranean channel down to Solomon's pools. The friars at Bethlehem point out this spring as the sealed fountain to which Solomon compared his bride. They have a tradition that he shut up this spring, and sealed the mouth of the well with his signet, to preserve the water pure for his own drinking. The tradition harmonizes very well with the epithet he chose for his bride. Deeds, covenants, and other writings of consequence, were sealed up, and placed in a vessel, having a seal on its mouth for security. (See Jeremiah 32.) So the Greeks used to keep important documents closed up in vessels of brass or earthenware. The Jews also put them into sealed bags; leathern bags most probably, for greater durability. To this custom Job alludes, chapter 14. 17, My transgression is sealed up in a bag," as if it were a testimony or evidence against him. So Deuteronomy 32. 34, Moses, speaking in the Lord's name, of the divine displeasure against iniquity, says, "Is not this laid up in store with me, and sealed up among my treasures ?" 66 Letters of consequence or from persons of rank are still inclosed and sealed up in bags in the East. In Moor's Oriental Fragments is a description of such inclosing. The letter being folded, sealed, and directed, is put into a bag of fine muslin, which is placed within another bag, larger, and made of very rich silk, thickly embroidered in flowers of gold or silver. The top of this bag is tied, about two or three inches down, with a long string of silk and gold twist, with tassels at the ends; and the string is passed through a mass of red wax, im | pressed with the great seal of the writer. The tassels sometimes contain in a knot a slip of paper, inscribed with the name and principal title of the writer. This sealed bag is put finally into another bag of fine muslin, and is then ready for the messenger. The seal or signet was sometimes used for the sign manual (as the seals of Mahometans are often to this day in the East), by inking the engraved part, and impressing it upon the substance written on. It was probably in this manner that Jezebel used Ahab's signet, when she wrote letters in his name concerning Naboth. Signet of the present Sultan. (1 Kings 21.) Sentences, as texts or maxims, were engraven on seals (as is still done in the East), and to this custom alludes John 3. 33, "He that hath received his testimony, hath set to his seal that God is true;” i.e., John, who hath received Christ's testimony, has made the text, "God is true," his maxim, as though he engraved it on his signet, in the manner of what we now call mottos. Similar is the allusion in 2Timothy 2. 19, "The foundation of God standeth sure, having this seal, The Lord knoweth them that are his." This latter sentence is represented as the text, or motto, of the seal (figuratively speaking) impressed upon "the foundation of God," which means here believers, built up in religious truth. The New Testament writers use the symbol seal, to denote the marking out of God's people from the wicked, by impressing them, as it were, with his peculiar signet; whereby also they are sealed up, or the access of evil to them obstructed, as in Revelation 7, where the servants of God are sealed in the forehead before the woes are let loose on the earth. In the parallel passage, (Ezek. 9. 4,6,) a mark is set on the foreheads of the mourners for the iniquity of the city, which mark Parkhurst understands to mean the impression of a seal made with ink, as above stated. The Talmudists say the mark was the Hebrew letter tau, which was symbolical of life, and was anciently written as a cross. says Seal is also used figuratively for a confirmation, as the seal confirms a deed or covenant. So St. Paul of the Corinthians (1Cor. 9. 2,) "The seal of mine apostleship are ye in the Lord:" because their conversion and instruction was the confirmation of his mission. In John 6. 29, God is said to have sealed Christ, because in his incarnation he confirmed his divine mission by the voice from heaven (Matt. 3. 17,) and by miraculous powers. Sealing is also used for the operation of the Holy Spirit, as the impression of a seal upon the converted, and no longer hardened heart of man, (Eph. 1. 13,14,) "In whom (Christ) also after that ye believed, ye were sealed with that Holy Spirit of promise which is the earnest of our redemption, &c." A parallel text is in 2Corinthians 1. 22. The seven seals which John saw (Rev. 5. 1,) on the sealed up book of prophecy are a mark of its importance. This seems to have been the book of Daniel's vision which he was commanded to seal up (that it |