pearly whiteness, and her large black eyes sparkled with uncommon fire, tempered by the most attractive sweetness. Her voice was strong and harmonious. Her manly understanding was strengthened and adorned by study. She was not ignorant of the Latin tongue, but possessed, in equal perfection, the Greek, the Syriac, and the Egyptian languages. She had drawn up for her own use an epitome of Oriental history, and familiarly compared the beauties of Plato and Homer under the tuition of the sublime Longinus." Zenobia is said to have professed the Jewish religion, and is by some critics supposed to have been of Jewish origin, although she boasted a nobler extraction. But the royal widow was not content with the sovereignty of Syria and Mesopotamia, although the neighbouring states of Persia, Armenia, and Arabia solicited her alliance; allured by a fatal ambition, she resolved to extend her conquests to Egypt, and, taking advantage of the Gothic wars in which the Emperor Claudius was engaged in the west, planted her banners on the banks of the Nile. Finding that Zenobia aspired to nothing short of the dominion of Asia, Aurelian, who after the death of Claudius, and the murder of that emperor's brother, was chosen emperor, prepared to march an army against her to reduce her to obedience to Rome Having accepted the submission of several cities in his route through Asia Minor, Aurelian encountered the forces of Zenobia in the vicinity of Antioch, the Syrian capital. Animated by the presence of their dauntless queen, who directed the battle in person, the Palmyrenian cavalry bore down the Roman legions; but the superior tactics of the western commander restored order to his ranks, and drew the enemy into a snare, from which the troops of Zenobia found it impossible to extricate themselves. Being defeated by Aurelian in another battle at Emesa, Zenobia retreated to her city of Palmyra, where she resolved to make a last and desperate stand for her crown. Valerian prepared at once to pursue her; and, although his soldiers suffered severely from the march through the desert, which denied them shelter or any kind of supplies, and were harassed by frequent attacks from predatory gangs of Arabs, he pressed the siege with vigour. The heroic queen still disdained to submit. In reply to the message of Aurelian, requiring her to surrender, she sent the emperor a letter, written by Longinus, in which she defied his power, reminded him of the inhospitable nature of the desert in which his troops were encamped; and, boasting of the strength of her walls, and the approaching succours of her allies, told him that she was resolved, like Cleopatra, that the last moment of her reign and her life should be the same.

We may judge of the strength and importance of the city of Palmyra in the third century by the difficulty which Aurelian found in obtaining admission into it. In an original letter to the senate, the emperor remarks, "The Roman people speak with contempt of the war which I am waging against a woman. They are ignorant both of the character and of the power of Zenobia. It is impossible to enumerate her warlike preparations of stones, of arrows, and of every species of missile weapons. Every part of the walls is provided with two or three balista, and artificial fires are thrown from her military engines. The fear of punishment has armed her with desperate courage. Yet still I trust in the protecting deities of Rome, who have hitherto been favourable to all my undertakings." Still Aurelian offered inviting terms to his warlike enemy; promising a splendid retreat to Zenobia, and to the citizens of Palmyra all their ancient privileges. These terms were rejected with disdain, and the queen of the East maintained her fortitude till she witnessed the approach of another

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Roman army under Probus, who had returned from the conquest of Egypt. Zenobia now mounted one of her fleetest dromedaries, and, with a chosen band, passing the hostile lines in the night, fled toward Persia. Aurelian quickly pursued her, and she was taken prisoner on the banks of the Euphrates as she was stepping into the boat that was to have carried her beyond the reach of her pursuers. The city now surrendered to Aurelian;

and from the accounts which Pollio, Vopiscus, and Zosimus have given of the value of the spoils that fell into his hands, it is evident that at the period just preceding its ruin, Palmyra was a place of as much commercial importance as it was when Solomon made it one of his store cities, and deposited there the spices, the gold, and the precious stones with which the caravans of his merchants came laden from India. Aurelian treated his royal captive with leniency, and after gracing his triumphal procession, she was given an estate at Tibur, which was transmitted to the children which were the issue of a second marriage with a Roman nobleman. His fury, however, fell upon the incomparable Longinus. Aurelian had scarcely crossed the Hellespont on his return from the East when intelligence reached him that the citizens of Palmyra had revolted. He instantly recrossed the straits, and, breathing forth vengeance, rapidly marched back upon the devoted city. His own letters inform us that he ordered the indiscriminate execution of men, women, and children; his chastisement nearly depopulated the place; its defences were dismantled, and its magnificent Temple of the Sun almost destroyed. Aurelian afterwards repented the destruction of Palmyra; but although he appropriated a sum of money to the restoration of the temple, the glory of the East fell into irretrievable ruin.

The site of this city of the wilderness was unknown, and its history was forgotten till its noble ruins were accidentally discovered during the last century by some British travellers. Mr. R. Wood's drawings and descriptions at once excited the attention of the learned and curious throughout Europe; and, since his time, Palmyra has been inspected by several French and English travellers, to whom we are indebted for minute descriptions of its architectural remains: The ground,

League beyond league, like one great cemetery, Is covered o'er with mould'ring monuments; And let the living wander where they will, They cannot leave the footsteps of the dead. Palmyra is situated under a barren ridge of hills to the west, being open on the other sides to the desert. Mr. Wood describes the impression created on his mind by the first sight of its ruins in 1751 in the following terms: "In nine hours from Carietein we came to a ruined tower, on which we observed, in two places, the Maltese cross. Near it are the ruins of a very rich building, as appeared by a white marble door-case, which is the only part standing not covered with sand. At midnight we stopped two hours for refreshment, and the 14th, about noon, we arrived at the end of the plain, where the hills to our right and left seemed to meet. We found between those hills a vale through which an aqueduct (now ruined) formerly conveyed water to Palmyra. In this vale, to our right and left, were several square towers of a considerable height, which, upon a nearer approach, we found were the sepulchres of the ancient Palmyrenes. We had scarce passed these venerable monuments, when the hills opening, discovered to us, all at once, the greatest ruins we had ever seen, of white marble, and beyond them, towards the Eu phrates, a flat waste as far as the eye could reach, without any object which showed either life or motion. It is scarcely possible to imagine anything more striking

all

"Of Tedmór the ancient remains are so fully given by Wood," says Mr. Burckhardt, “that it is impossible for me to add to them. I discovered a single oversight in Wood, which is having noted down only one source and rivulet at Tedmór. There is a second, which takes its rise in the hill beyond the Temple of Diocletian, and is conducted by a subterraneous aqueduct across the ruins and the grand colonnade until it issues from under ground near the ancient walls of the city, and shortly afterwards joins the other rivulet. The first view of Tedmór when arriving from the west, and issuing from the narrow pass between the Jebel Abyad and a branch of the Jebel Rowak, is beautiful beyond description; but I must confess that, at the first moment, I was still more struck by the aspect of trees and verdure in the middle of a sandy sea, than by that of the proud remains of human grandeur." Mr. Bruce, the celebrated traveller, observes, “Just before we came in sight of the ruins we ascended a hill of white gritty stone, in a very narrow winding road, such as we call a pass, and when arrived at the top, there opened below us the most astonishing stupendous sight that perhaps ever appeared to mortal eyes. The whole plain below, which was very extensive, was covered so thickly with magnificent buildings as that one seemed to touch the other, all of fine proportions, all of agreeable forms, all composed of white stones, which, at that distance, appeared like marble. At the end of it stood the Palace of the Sun, a building worthy to close so magnificent a scene."

Messrs. Irby and Mangles, however, who visited Palmyra 1817-18, do not estimate the architectural remains of the "Queen of the Desert" so highly as preceding travellers: the picturesque effect of the whole, they state, presented altogether the most imposing sight they had ever seen; but, on minute examination of the sculptures, they were of opinion that the plates of Messrs. Wood and Dawkins "had done but too much justice to the originals." The last visitor, on the other hand, Mr. C. G. Addison, contends that the criticisms of Irby and Mangles are not founded in justice. "I did not share," he says, "in the disappointment expressed by one of our travellers, because the columns of these porticos were not above half the height of the columns of the great temple of Baalbec, not at all expecting to find columns composing lines of porticos extending for a mile, of the same gigantic size as those of the peristyle court of a temple. Nor do I at all agree in the opinion that the details of the architecture are unworthy of admiration; true it is that the capitals of the columns, and all the more delicately sculptured parts, possess none of the deep and sharp cutting that one sees at Baalbec; but this is entirely owing to the corroding effects of the siroc wind from the desert, for, on examining those parts which were sheltered from the weather, and disengaging the fallen fragments from the sand in which they lie buried, we found them beautifully and deeply chiselled."

The Valley of the Tombs is considered the most interesting portion of Palmyra: it abounds in noble sepulchral monuments; many of the inscriptions are legible. It is worthy of remark that the Palmyrenes dated from the æra of the Seleucida. (See HALLEY'S and SWINTON'S Papers in the Philosophical Transactions.)

The origin of the name of Palmyra has given rise to no small controversy; but it appears now to be the

from the word Palma, and was a translation of the Hebrew name of Tadmor, which signifies a place abounding in palms. If any confirmation were necessary to establish the identity of Tadmor and Palmyra, it is afforded in the interesting fact that the Arabs, who live among the ruins, still call the place Tedmór. P.

TAHAPANES or TAHPANHES, an Egyptian city, supposed to be Daphne Pelusia, situated sixteen miles from Pelusium. It stood on the margin of the lake now called Menzaleh, and seems to have enjoyed extensive commerce both with the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The Prophet Jeremiah in recounting the sufferings of the Jews, says, "Also the children of Noph and Tahapanes have broken the crown of thy head." Johanan, discrediting the prophecies of Jeremiah, carried away the prophet and all the remnant of Judah to Egypt: "Then came the word of the Lord unto Jeremiah in Tahpanhes, saying, Take great stones in thine hand, and hide them in the clay of the brick-kiln, which is at the entry of Pharaoh's house in Tahpanhes, in the sight of the men of Judah; and say unto them, Thus saith the Lord of Hosts, the God of Israel; Behold I will send and take Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, my servant, and will set his throne upon these stones that I have hid; and he shall spread his pavilion over them. And when he cometh, he shall smite the land of Egypt, and deliver such as are for death to death; and such as are for captivity to captivity; and such as for the sword to the sword." (Jerem. 43.) Tahapanes was, we are informed, the burial-place of Jeremiah. P.

TALENT. A weight among the Jews containing three thousand shekels, which, if a shekel of silver be reckoned at three shillings, a talent of it will amount to four hundred and fifty pounds sterling; and one of gold to sixteen times as much, viz., seven thousand two hundred pounds. But we, supposing a shekel of silver to be considerably less, viz., two shillings, three pence, and three-eighths, compute the talent of silver at three hundred and forty-two pounds, three shillings, and nine pence; and a talent of gold at five thousand four hundred and ninety-five pounds sterling. (Exod. 38. 24-27.)

The weight of a Jewish talent for weighing silver was one hundred and thirteen pounds, ten ounces, one pennyweight, ten grains, and two-sevenths; but their talent used in weighing other things was, perhaps, a fifth-part heavier.

The Egyptian talent was eighty-six and almost nine ounces. They had a talent at Antioch that weighed three hundred and ninety pounds and about three ounces and a half. See MONEY.

Whatever means of grace and usefulness God gives to men are called pounds and talents, and to some he gives these in greater, and to others in less proportion; but all ought to improve what they receive, and must give account of the use thereof. (Matt. 25. 15-19; Luke 19.) To mark the infinite disproportion between the injuries done by us to God, and those done by men to us, the former are called ten thousand talents, and the latter, one hundred pence. (Matt. 28. 24-21; Zech. 5. 7; Rev. 16. 21.) A.

The Mishna is divided into six great heads called Orders, or Sedarim. Each Order is divided into Treatises, (or Titles, as they are sometimes called,) each concerning a separate matter. The Treatises are called

Masseceth. These are sub-divided into p Pirke, or chapters; and these are broken into smaller sections, called Halacah, Constitutions, and sometimes

Mishnas.

1st Order. Seder Zeraim, of Seeds, relating to agriculture, first-fruits, tithes, produce of the earth, &c. Its first treatise contains rules for prayer, benedictions, &c.: because, as Maimonides says, it is not lawful to eat without a previous prayer or blessing; which is the rational preparation for enjoying the fruits of the earth. 1st Treatise, (or Title,) Beracoth, of benedictions and prayers.

2nd Treatise, Peah, concerning the corner of the field and the gleanings of the vineyard to be left to the poor, (Levit. 19. 9,10); of the gleanings of the olives for the poor, (Deut. 24. 20); of alms, and the tithes of the poor, (Deut. 14. 29); &c.

3rd Treatise, Domai, of the doubtful thing: i. e., concerning purchased productions of the earth, whereof it was doubtful whether they had paid their tithes, firstfruits, &c., and therefore whether their use were lawful or not.

4th Treatise, Chilaim, of mixtures, i. e., of different kinds of grain, &c., &c., animals, wool and yarn, &c. (Levit. 19. 19; Deut. 22. 9,10,11.)

5th Treatise, Shebidh, of the laws of the seventh or Sabbatic year. (Exod. 23. 10,11; Levit. 25. 1,2; Deut. 15. 1,2.)

6th Treatise, Terumoth, of first-fruits to the priests. (Numb. 18.)

7th Treatise, Maaseroth or Maasher-Riska, of tenths of fruits given to the Levites after the tithes to the priests.

8th Treatise, Maasher Sheni, of the second tithes, i. e., the tenth of the remaining part after deducting the above tenths, which Maasher Sheni, the master of the house, should either carry to Jerusalem to use there, or convert it into money and take that to Jerusalem. (Deut. 14. 24-26.)

9th Treatise, Challah, concerning the offering of the cake of the first of the dough. (Numb. 15. 20.) 10th Treatise, Orlah, of uncircumcision of trees. (Levit. 19. 23.)

11th Treatise, Biccurim, of first-fruits.

2nd Order, Seder Moed, of Festivals.

1st Treatise, of the Sabbath.

2nd Treatise, Enibin, or mixtures, (also Sabbatical rules of different kinds).

3rd Treatise, Pesachim, of the Passover.

4th Treatise, Shekalim, concerning the tributes of the half shekels, &c. (Exod. 30.)

5th Treatise, Cippurim, of the Day of Expiation. 6th Treatise, Succoth, of the Feast of Tabernacles. 7th Treatise, Shebuoth, of the Feast of Weeks, or Pentecost.

8th Treatise, Betzah, of the egg, i. e., whether it be lawful to eat an egg laid on a feast day, that same

day.

9th Treatise, Rosh Hashana, of the New Year. 10th Treatise, Taamoth, of the Fasts. 11th Treatise, Megillah, of the Feast of Purim. 12th Treatise, Moed Katon, of the lesser Festivals. 13th Treatise, Chagiga, of the Festivals of appearing before God, i. e., the three great festivals, when all the males were obliged to appear at Jerusalem, the Passover, Tabernacles, and Pentecost. (Deut. 16. 16.) This

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4th Treatise, Nezirath, of the vows of Nazarites. 5th Treatise, Gittin, of bills of divorce.

6th Treatise, Sotah, of putting away a wife. 7th Treatise, Kiddushim, of espousals.

4th Order, Seder Nizikin, of Injuries and Losses. 1st Treatise, Baba Kama, i. e., the first door; concerning injuries and the means of preventing them; as in case of the vicious ox, of fire, of a well left open, of wounds, &c.

2nd Treatise, Baba Melzia, i. e., the middle door; concerning claims, pledges, farms, and leases, exchanges,

&c.

3rd Treatise, Baba Bathra, i. e., the last door; concerning inheritance, trade, partnerships, sales, &c. 4th Treatise, The Sanhedrin, of the grand council. 5th Treatise, Maccoth, of stripes. 6th Treatise, Shebuith, of oaths.

7th Treatise, Edaioth, of witnesses, and testimonies; also concerning idolatry, because it was the subject of many judicial proceedings.

8th Treatise, Aboth, or decrees of the fathers, containing the moral precepts of the sages, particularly relative to the mode and spirit of administering justice; and herein is named all those by whom the oral law was preserved and transmitted.

9th Treatise, Horaioth, of warnings, concerning some errors in judicial matters.

5th Order, Seder Kodashim, of Holy things. 1st Treatise, Zebachim, of sacrifices. 2nd Treatise, Menachoth, of oblations. 3rd Treatise, Cholin, of profane things. 2th Treatise, Becoroth, of the first born. 5th Treatise, Eracin, of estimations. (Levit. 27.) 6th Treatise, Termurah, of exchange or redemption. 7th Treatise, Cerituth, of cutting off; concerning sacrifices for such sins as lay under the penalty of cutting off.

8th Treatise, Meilah, of trespass offerings. 9th Treatise, Tamid, of the daily sacrifice.

10th Treatise, Middoth, or measures, concerning the dimensions, form, and structure of the Sanctuary of the Temple, which are carefully preserved, because of 1 Chronicles 28. 19, "All this, said David, the Lord made me understand in writing by his hand upon me, even all the works of this pattern."

11th Treatise, Kinnim, of nests, concerning the offerings of birds.

6th Order, Seder Taharoth, Purifications. 1st Treatise, Celim, vessels, concerning the purifying of all vessels.

2nd Treatise, Oholoth, tents or tabernacles, concerning pollution contracted from the dead.

3rd Treatise, Negaim, garments, concerning the uncleanness of leprosy.

4th Treatise, Parah, of the heifer whose ashes were used in the water for purifying the unclean. (Numb. 19.) 5th Treatise, Taharoth, of purifications.