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VAPOUR

depends upon the periodical rains. The dew, for instance, may be mentioned as a vapour, or exhalation, to which the inhabitants of Canaan attached much importance; they believed that it afforded the best sustenance to the trees, shrubs, and herbs, on which it was found. Job beautifully alludes to this, in his description of the prosperity he enjoyed before his season of affliction:

Then I said, I shall die in my nest,

I shall multiply my days as the palm-tree;
My root shall spread out to the waters;
The dew of night shall repose on my branches:
My glory shall be unfading around me;
And my bow continue fresh in my hand.

WEMYSS'S Trans.

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VEIL, a covering used by women in the East for concealing their face and person.

In very early times the veil was not so universally used as at present. We find, from Genesis 24. 11, that when Eliezer went to look for a wife for Isaac, "he made his camels to kneel down without the city, by a well of water, at the time of the evening, even the time that women go out to draw water." He was aware that his best opportunity for making observations on the women would occur in the evening, when they came to the well, because at that time they were either not veiled at all, or very partially so. It appears that the unmarried females, even of towns, only veiled themselves on particular occasions in those times; for we find that when Rebekah went to meet Isaac, and saw him at a distance," she lighted off the camel, for she had said unto the servant, What man is this that walketh in the field to meet us? and the servant had said, It is my master: therefore she took a veil, and covered herself." (Gen. 24. 64,65.) It is the invariable custom in the East for the bride to be conducted to the bridegroom entirely veiled; therefore Rebekah, on seeing Isaac, “took a veil, and covered herself."

Rosenmüller, in illustration of this passage, quotes an ancient father (Tertullian), who, with an express reference to the same text, observes, as a custom still existing in his time, that the heathen brides were also conducted to their husbands covered with a veil. It is all but universal in the East; and it will be observed that it is used not only by the females whose faces are always concealed both before and after marriage, but by

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those who display part or the whole of their faces on all ordinary occasions.

In modern times the females are veiled with great strictness; and even in the time of Solomon we find the spouse complain, "They took away my veil from me.' (Cant. 5. 7.) To lift up the veil of a virgin is reckoned a gross insult; but to take away the veil of a married woman is one of the greatest indignities that she can receive, because it deprives her of the badge which distinguishes and dignifies her in that character, and betokens her alliance to her husband, and her interest in his affections. When it is forcibly taken away by the husband, it is equivalent to divorce, and justly reckoned a severe calamity; therefore God threatened to take away the ornamental dresses of the daughters of Zion, including the radidim, or low-descending veils: "In that day the Lord will take away the changeable suits of apparel, and the mantles, and the fine linen, and the hoods, and the veils." (Isai. 3. 18.)

A lady in the East considers herself degraded when accounts for the conduct of Vashti in refusing to obey she is exposed to the gaze of the other sex, which the command of the king. (Esther 1. 11,12.) Their ideas of decency forbid a virtuous woman to lay aside, or even to lift up, her veil, in the presence of men. She who ventures to disregard this prohibition, inevitably ruins her character. From that moment she is noted as a woman of easy virtue, and her act is regarded as a signal for intrigue. Pitts tells us that in Barbary the courtesan appears in public without her veil.

The veil is also worn as a token of reverence and subjection to husbands. (1Cor. 11. 3-15.)

There can be no doubt that the veil is of very remote antiquity; but from the sculptures and paintings of the ancient Egyptians it seems not to have been worn by the females of that nation. Lane, in his account of the modern Egyptians, give us very full particulars of the manner in which ladies now wear the veil in that country. He says, "A long piece of white muslin, embroidered at each end with coloured silks and gold, or of coloured crape ornamented with gold thread and spangles, rests upon the head and hangs down behind, nearly, or quite, to the ground; this is called 'tarhah,' it is the 'head veil,' and can be drawn forward to cover the face at pleasure; this veil is always worn in the house. The riding or walking attire of an Egyptian lady is called 'tezyureh.' Whenever she leaves the house, she wears a large loose gown, the sleeves of which are nearly equal in width to the whole length of the gown; it is of silk, generally of a pink, or rose, or violet colour. colour. Next is put on the burko,' or 'face-veil,' which is a long strip of white muslin, concealing the whole of the face except the eyes, and reaching nearly to the feet; it is suspended at the top by a narrow band, which passes up the forehead, and which is sewed, as are also the two upper corners of the veil, to a band that is tied round the head. The lady then covers herself with a 'habarah,' which, for a married lady, is composed of two breadths of glossy black silk, each ell-wide, and three yards long (according to the height of the person), the seam running horizontally. With respect to the manner in which it is worn: a piece of narrow black riband is sewed inside the upper part, about six inches from the edge, to tie round the head. This covering is always worn in the manner shown by the accompanying sketch. The unmarried ladies wear a 'habarah' of white silk, or a shawl. Some females of the middle classes, who cannot afford to purchase a 'habarah,' wear, instead of it, an 'uzar,' which is a piece of white calico, of the same form and size as the former, and worn in the same manner. But although

Eastern Veils.

the ladies are so closely wrapped up that those who look at them cannot even see their hands, still less their faces, yet it is reckoned indecent in a man to fix his eyes upon them; he must let them pass without seeming at all to observe them."

"When a lady of distinction, "says Hanway, "travels on horseback, she is is not only veiled, but has generally a servant who runs or rides before her to clear the way; and on such occasions the men, even in the marketplaces, always turn their backs till the women are past, it being considered the height of ill-manners to look at them."

In Syria, the shape of the veils somewhat differ, but not sufficiently so to require a minute description; we may, however, mention, that many ladies use as a veil a long piece of black crape stiffened, which, sloping a little from the forehead, leaves room to breathe more freely. This latter is a complete disguise, as even the eyes are covered. The mere shape of the veil differs in different parts of the East; but the use, or partial use of it by women, may be considered universal. A.

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VERMILION, ww sisir. This well-known metallic paint was first brought into use by the Phoenicians, who imported large quantities of it in the form of a reddish sand from their colonies in Northern Africa. Its bright red colour recommended vermilion to those who were engaged in decorating temples and idols; hence, whenever it was mentioned in Scripture, it was usually associated with idolatry. Hence Ezekiel, reproving the apostasy of his times, declares, that Aholiab "added to her idolatries, for she saw men pourtrayed upon the wall, images of Chaldeans pourtrayed with vermilion, girded with girdles upon their loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads, after the manner of the Babylonians, even of

Chaldea." (Ezek. 23. 12-14.) He adds, "and she
doted upon them as soon as she cast her eyes on them."
These were in fact the representations of the Chaldean
idols, which many of the Jews were seduced unto
worshipping. The author of the apocryphal Book of
Wisdom also alludes to this custom:
"The carpenter
taketh the very refuse of his timber, being a crooked
piece of wood, and full of knots, and carving it diligently
when he had nothing else to do, and fashioning it into
the image of a man, or like some wild beast, laying it
over with vermilion and with paint, colouring it red,
and covering every spot therein." (Wisd. 13. 14.) C.

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mention of the vine in Scripture occurs in Genesis 9.20: "And Noah began to be an husbandman, and he planted a vineyard." Many are of opinion that wine was not unknown before the Deluge, and that the patriarch only continued to cultivate the vine after that event, as he had done before it, but the Fathers think that he knew not the force of wine, having never used it before, nor having seen any one use it.

The grape vine is found wild at this day in the neighbourhood of Noah's first vineyard, at the foot of Mount Ararat. Humboldt found it on the shores of the Caspian, in Caramania, and in Armenia. It is also a native of Georgia and of the northern parts of Persia, but does not extend to India, though several plants of the same family are common among the mountains of the northern parts of that rich country.

The vine was not a native of Egypt, nor does the climate favour it. In ancient times, as we learn from the monuments, great care was taken in its culture, but with little success; and hence the surprise of the spies when sent to survey the promised land at the immense clusters of grapes they found. Fearing that their account of their great size would not be credited by persons accustomed to the less productive vines of Egypt, they brought back a cluster of the grapes to convince them, as we learn in Numbers 13. 23,24: "And they came unto the brook of Eshcol, and cut down from thence a branch with one cluster of grapes, and they bare it between two, upon a staff; and they brought of the pomegranates, and of the figs. The place was called Eshcol because of the cluster of grapes which the children of Israel cut down from thence."

Some wine, indeed, has been made in Lower Egypt,

VINE.

in different ages, but it was never celebrated either for quality or quantity. From the fortieth chapter of Genesis, where the dream of Pharaoh's chief butler is related, it would appear that the juice of the grape fresh-pressed was drunk by the king; and possibly the Egyptian grape-juice at that time was used in the state of must. But though the Pharaohs drank of the "blood of the grape" in this imperfect state, the Ptolemies revelled in the maturer wines of Palestine, Cyprus, and Greece; and one of them, as Josephus tells us, among some magnificent gifts sent to the Temple of Jerusalem, renewed the Golden Vine, the symbol of the Jewish nation, of which the treasury had been robbed.

Rosenmüller tells us that in the Temple, above and around a gate seventy cubits high, which led from the porch to the holy place, a richly-carved vine was extended as a border and decoration. The branches, tendrils, and leaves were of the finest gold, the stalks of the bunches were of the length of the human form, and the bunches hanging upon them were of costly jewels. Herod first placed it there; rich and patriotic Jews from time to time added to its embellishment, one contributing a new grape, another a leaf, and a third even a bunch of the same precious materials.

If to compute its value at more than twelve millions of dollars be an exaggeration, it is, nevertheless, indisputable that this vine must have had an uncommon importance, and a sacred meaning, in the eyes of the Jews. With what a majestic splendour must it likewise have appeared in the evening, when it was illuminated by tapers. This golden vine was afterwards carried to Rome, where, along with the golden candlestick and other rich ornaments of the Temple, it made part of the show in Vespasian's and Titus's triumph for the taking of Jerusalem.

Tacitus mentions this vine as one proof that the Jews worshipped Bacchus at the Feast of the Tabernacles, which took place about the time of the celebration of the orgies. The truth is, that when the Jewish princes began, in conformity with the customs of other nations, to use coined money instead of lumps of metal of certain weight, the vine was their common device: some of their pieces have on them a single vine-leaf, others a bunch of grapes, or a vine-branch, with leaves, fruit, and

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tendrils. Yet these, like the golden vine, were only symbolical of the nation, though they were, like it, taken for the signs of idolatry.

The book of Genesis informs us that the culture of the vine and the art of making wine were very ancient in the land of Canaan. It relates that when Abraham and his followers were returning with their captives from the open country, where they had overcome Chedorlaomer and the kings of the plain, Melchisedeck, king of Salem, brought forth bread and wine to refresh them, (Gen. 14. 18:) "And Melchisedeck, king of Salem, brought forth bread and wine, and he was the priest of the Most High God."

We have before mentioned that the climate of Egypt was not favourable to the culture of the grape, yet from the monuments we infer that its cultivation was at one. time popular in Egypt, though it could only have been grown with success in a few of the high-lying districts, and when commerce enabled the Egyptians to import wine from other countries better and cheaper than they could manufacture it themselves, they had the good sense to abandon this unprofitable branch of industry and direct. their attention to commodities for which nature afforded them greater facilities.

Indeed every circumstance proves to us that the cultivation of the vine required great care and attention. in Egypt. This care was particularly required to guard. against the hoary night-shade, called by the Arabs, aneb-el-dib, or the wolf-vine, which is common in Egypt. and Palestine, grows much in the vineyards, and is very pernicious to them. It greatly resembles a vine in its. shrubby stalk. This was "the wild vine" whose fruit poisoned the pottage which Elisha miraculously cured. (2Kings 4. 39-41.) It is to this also, that Moses alludes in his prophetic description of the future degeneracy of the Israelites: "For the vine is the vine of Sodom and of the fields of Gomorrah, their grapes are grapes of gall, their clusters are bitter. Their wine is the poison of dragons, and the cruel venom of asps." (Deut. 32. 32,33.)

In the engraving of the vine arbour before us, it will be seen that great care is taken to keep the roots moist, they are inclosed by a mound or wall, and water is brought to them by one of the labourers. The grapes when

An Egyptian Vineyard and Winepress.

gathered, were conveyed in baskets to the wine-vat. This was not a moveable utensil, but a permanent structure; when the fruit was here collected, men and women were employed to crush it by treading. We find ropes fixed to a transverse pole by which the vintners gave greater force and elasticity to their spring or leap. We find many wine-vats displaying considerable architectural beauty in their construction. To this operation there are frequent allusions in Scripture. Bishop Lowth has dwelt forcibly on the poetic beauty of the delineation of divine vengeance by imagery borrowed from the winepress in Isaiah's description of the Messiah's victory

over his enemies: "Who is this that cometh from Edom with dyed garments from Bozrah? This that is glorious in his apparel travelling in the greatness of his strength? I that speak in righteousness, mighty to save. Wherefore art thou red in thine apparel, and thy garments like him that treadeth in the wine-vat? I have trodden the wine-press alone, and of the people there was none with me, for I will tread them in mine anger, and trample them in my fury, and their blood shall be sprinkled upon my garments, and I will stain all my raiment. For the day of vengeance is in mine heart, and the year of my redeemed is come. And I looked, and there was

none to help, and I wondered that there was none to uphold, therefore mine own arm brought salvation unto me, and my fury it upheld me. And I will tread down the people in mine anger, and make them drunk in my fury, and bring down their strength to the earth." (Isai. 63. 1-6.) In this noble burst of poetry, the word "alone" has a peculiar emphasis, because it was usual for several persons to tread together in the wine-press. The crushing of the grapes, the spurting forth of the purple juice, and the dark stains on the vesture, naturally suggest an image of the waste and destruction ensuing from the triumph of some mighty conqueror. To the Hebrews it was a familiar illustration, for in their language, "blood of the grape" is an ordinary expression for wine. Many commentators have applied this remarkable prophecy to the victories of Judas Maccabeus over the Idumeans; but the character of the conqueror described by Isaiah is clearly very different from that of the Maccabee, and the victories of Judas Maccabeus, however decisive, do not adequately fulfil the prediction of wide and utter desolation. There is, however, another very material circumstance to be considered; the Idumea of Isaiah's time, was quite a different country from that which Judas conquered. "During the Babylonian captivity," says Bishop Lowth, "the Nabatheans had driven the Edomites out of their country; and the expelled people took possession of the southern part of Judea, that is, the country of the whole tribe of Judah and half that of Simeon." In fact, when we look to the Maccabean history, we find that the capital of the country conquered by Judas, was Hebron, not Bozrah. The prophecy therefore refers to some event not yet accomplished, and from the distinct reference made to it in the Revelations of St. John, we can be at no loss to determine the person who is introduced by Isaiah, as stained with the treading of the wine-press. "I saw heaven opened, and behold a white horse, and he that sat upon him was called faithful and true, and in righteousness he doth judge and make war. His eyes were as a flame of fire, and on his head were many crowns, and he had a name written that no man knew but himself. And he was clothed with a vesture dipped in blood: and his name is called the Word of God. And the armies which were in heaven followed him upon white horses, clothed in fine linen, white and clean. And out of his mouth goeth a sharp sword, that with it he should smite the nations, and he shall rule them with a rod of iron, and he treadeth the wine-press of the fierceness and wrath of Almighty God. And he hath on his vesture, and on his thigh, a name written, KING OF KINGS AND LORD OF LORDS."

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The same vivid image of crushing grapes occurs in the beautiful specimen of a national elegy, the Lamentations of Jeremiah. "The Lord has trodden under foot all my mighty men in the midst of me, he has called an assembly against me to crush my young men; the Lord has trodden the virgin, the daughter of Judah, as in a wine-press." (Lam. 1. 15.)

Treading out the grapes was an exhilarating employment; in all the representations of the process we imagine that we can see joy and merriment proceeding even to extravagance in the countenances of those engaged in it. This circumstance explains another image of divine vengeance in the prophecies of Jeremiah. "The Lord shall mightily roar from his habitation, he shall give a shout as they that tread the grapes, against all the inhabitants of the earth." (Jerem. 25. 30.) Indeed so great was the general joy inspired by the vintage, that its cessation was one of the punishments denounced by Jeremiah against Moab. "And joy and gladness is taken from the plentiful field and from the

land of Moab; and I have caused wine to fail from the wine-presses, none shall tread with shouting, their shouting shall be no shouting." (Jerem. 48. 33.)

The crushed pulp of the grapes sunk into the bottom of the vat or cistern, the expressed juice flowed out through a spout inserted in the side of the cistern, about one-third of its height from the ground. The juice was imperfectly extracted by the treading process, and another operation was required to render available what remained in the trodden pulp. For this purpose, a bag made of flags or rushes was provided, in which the pulp was placed and compressed by twisting the end of the bag with staves or hand-spikes. Even after it had undergone this process, the pulp was deemed too valuable to be thrown away, and the pressure on the bag was increased until every drop of fluid was pressed out.

There were in Palestine many excellent vineyards. Scripture celebrates the vines of Sorek, of Sebamah, of Jazer, of Abel. Profane authors mention the excellent wines of Gaza, Sarepta, Libanus, Saron, Ascalon, and Tyre. Jacob in the blessing he gave Judah, (Gen. 49. 11,) says, "Binding his foal unto the vine, and his ass's colt unto the choice vine, he washed his garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood of grapes," to show the abundance of vines that should fall to his lot.

The law of Moses did not allow the planters of vineyards to eat the fruit before the fifth year. (Levit. 19. 25,) "And in the fifth year shall he eat of the fruit thereof, that it may yield unto you the increase thereof: I am the Lord your God," The Israelites were also required to indulge the poor, the orphan, and the stranger, with the use of the grapes on the seventh year. A traveller was allowed to gather and eat the grapes in a vineyard as he passed along, but he was not permitted to carry any away. (Deut. 23. 24,) "When thou comest into thy neighbour's vineyard then thou mayest eat grapes thy fill at thine own pleasure, but thou shalt not put any in thy vessel."

The scarcity of fuel, particularly wood, in most parts of the East, is so great, that they supply it with every thing capable of burning, cow-dung, dried roots, parings of fruits, withered stalks of herbs, and flowers. Vinetwigs are particularly mentioned as used for fuel in dressing their food, by D'Arvieux, La Roque, and others. Ezekiel says in his parable of the vine used figuratively for the people of God, "Shall wood be taken thereof to do any work? Or shall men take a pin of it to hang any vessel thereon? Behold it is cast into the fire for fuel." (Ezek. 15. 3,4.) “If a man abide not in me, (saith Our Lord,) he is cast forth as a branch (of the vine), and is withered, and men gather them, and cast them into the fire, and they are burned." (John 15. 6.)

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The expression of "sitting every man under his own vine," probably alludes to the delightful arbours which were partly composed of vines. Plantations of trees about houses are very useful in hot countries to give them an agreeable coolness. The ancient Israelites seem to have made use of the same means, and probably planted fruit trees rather than other kinds to produce that effect. "It is their fashion in many places," says Thomas Rowe's chaplain, speaking of the country of the Great Mogul, "to plant about and amongst their buildings, trees which grow high and broad, the shadow whereof keeps their houses by far more cool; this I observed in a special manner when we were ready to enter Amadavar; for it appeared to us as if we had been entering a wood rather than a city." "Immediately on entering," (says Turner,) "I was ushered into the court yard of the Aga, whom I found smoking under a vine, surrounded by horses, servants, and dogs."

Dr. Russell states that it is very common to cover the

VINE

stairs leading to the upper apartments of the harem with vines. This fully explains the beautiful metaphor in Psalm 128: "Thy wife shall be as a fruitful vine by the sides of thy house."

The fruitful vine is the favourite emblem by which the inspired writers love to figure the Hebrew nation. When obedient, the vine flourisheth and extendeth her branches to the furthermost parts of the earth; but when rebellious, God hideth his face, the vine is neglected, the wild beasts break down the fences, trample the vineyard, and devour its clusters till all is waste. Again, on repentance, the Lord of mercy visiteth his vine, and the vineyard is restored, the wine-press is full, and every man may rejoice under his vine and under his fig-tree.

In the New Testament, the vine shares with the lily and the wheat-field, the honour of illustrating the parables of our Divine Teacher.

In the sermon on the Mount, He asks, in illustration of the sentence concerning bad men, "By their works shall ye know them; do men gather grapes of thorns?" (Matt. 7. 16.) And in speaking the two parables, the first of the labourers who though entering the vineyard at different hours of the day received each his just reward, (Matt. 21. 1-14,) and the second, of the rebellious labourers who first turned out their lord's appointed messengers, and finally abused and slew his son, (Matt. 21. 33-41,) how beautifully has the

Preacher chosen scenes familiar to the minds and senses of his hearers.

Beyond all the fruits of the earth is the fruit of the vine honoured and hallowed: Jesus himself hath consecrated it.

We will state in conclusion, that as the extraordinary fertility of Palestine has been sometimes denied by sceptics, even now, notwithstanding the countless calamities which have befallen that unhappy land, and the atrocious tyranny to which it is still subjected, evidences of its former productiveness have been collected by nearly all the travellers who have visited that country. "Galilee," says Malte Brun, "would be a paradise, were its inhabitants an industrious people under an enlightened government. Vine-stocks are to be found here a foot and a half in diameter, forming by their twining branches vast arches and extensive ceilings of verdure. A cluster of grapes two or three feet in length, will give an abundant supper to a whole family." Laborde, in the opposite extremity of Palestine, found clusters of grapes fully as enormous as those which the spies are described to have brought from the brook of Eshcol. A.

VINEGAR, Yn chometz, ocos, oxos. An acid produced by a second fermentation of vinous liquors. Vinegar, or perhaps some kind of thin sour wine, was used by reapers for their refreshment in the season of harvest, and when not too acid, or when diluted with water, it made a very cooling beverage. Hence Boaz, when anxious to show kindness to Ruth, told her that she might come and dip her bread in vinegar with his people. An allowance of vinegar was made to the Roman soldiers when on a march, and that which they offered to Our Saviour was probably a portion of that which they used for their own drinking. The use of vinegar, as well as of wine, was forbidden to those who had taken the Nazarite vow.

VIOL. See MUSIC.

C.

VIPER, DN ephach, exidva, echidna. The The English name of this serpent is derived from the Latin

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has been dreaded for its venomous bite, and made the emblem of every thing that is hurtful and destructive; indeed its poison is one of the most active and dangerous in the animal kingdom. So terrible was the nature of these creatures that they were very commonly thought to be sent as executioners of Divine vengeance upon mankind for enormous crimes which had escaped the course of justice. The people of Melita showed that they were thoroughly imbued with this superstition when St. Paul was shipwrecked on the island. (Acts 28. 3.) This dangerous serpent is known in the East by the name of leffah; it is thus described by Dr. Shaw. "The most common as well as malignant of the serpent tribe is the leffah. It is about a foot in length; it is not always of the same colour, but varies a little according to the quality of the earth, sand, or rocks where it is found." The modern Oriental name is derived from an Arabic word which signifies "to burn," whence some have inferred that the fiery serpents sent to chastise the Israelites in the desert were leffahs, or vipers. C.

VIRGIN, na bethulah. The Hebrew word, like the Latin virgo and puella, is frequently used to signify any young woman whether married or single. In Joel, it is applied to a newly-married wife: "Lament like a virgin girded with sackcloth for the husband of her youth." (Joel 1. 8.) It is however more commonly taken in the rigid sense, for an immaculate virgin who had never known man, particularly in the well-known prediction, "Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bring forth a son." (Isai. 7. 14.) C.

VISION. In the Old Testament this word is frequently used to signify certain mysterious signs and appearances, whereby God made his will manifest to his priests and prophets. Hence Samuel declares, that during the apostasy which took place under Eli, "there was no open vision," (1 Sam. 3,) that is, there was no public and recognised revelation of the Divine will; to which we may compare the passage in Proverbs 29. 18, "There is no vision, the people perish." (See URIM.) Vision is also sometimes used to signify the ecstatic state of the prophets when they were favoured with communications from Jehovah.

C.

VOICE, л bath kol, "The daughter of the voice." The Rabbins assert, that inspiration was conveyed to the prophets in a low whispering sound, which

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