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LION.

ing or decreasing ratio of the solar power. The head he supposes to have denoted the 'present time,' which Horapollo interprets as the type of vigilance; and the fire of its eyes was considered analogous to the fiery look which the sun constantly directs towards the world. In the temple of Dakkeh, the lion is represented upon the shrine or sacred table of the ibis, the bird of Hermes; and a monkey, the emblem of the same deity, is seen praying to a lion with the disk of the sun upon its head. Some also believed the lion to be sacred to the Egyptian Minerva; and Ælian says the Egyptians consecrated it to Vulcan, attributing the fore part of this animal to fire, and the hinder parts to water.' Sometimes the lion, the emblem of strength, was adopted as a type of the king, and substituted for the more usual representation of royal power, the sphinx; which, when formed by the human head and lion's body, signified the union of intellectual and physical strength. In Southern Ethiopia, in the vicinity of the modern town of Shendy, the lion-headed deity seems to have been the chief object of worship. He holds a conspicuous place in the great temple of Wady Owáteb, and on the sculptured remains at Wady Benat; at the former of which he is the first in a procession of deities, consisting of Rê, Neph, and Pthah, to whom a monarch is making offerings. On the side of the propylæum tower is a snake with a lion's head and human arms, rising from a lotus; and in the small temple at the same place, a god with three lions' heads and two pair of arms, holds the principal place in the sculptures. This last appears to be peculiarly marked as a type of physical strength; which is still farther expressed by the choice of the number three, indicative of a material or physical sense. The lion also occurs in Ethiopia, devouring the prisoners, or attacking the enemy, in company with a king, as in the Egyptian sculptures. According to Plutarch, the lion was worshipped by the Egyptians, who ornamented the doors of their temples with the gaping mouth of that animal, because the Nile began to rise when the sun was in the constellation of Leo.' Horapollo says, lions were placed before the gates of the temples, as the symbols of watchfulness and protection. And being a type of the inundation, in consequence of the Nile rising more abundantly when the sun is in Leo, those who anciently presided over the sacred works, made the water-spouts and passages of fountains in the form of lions.' The latter remark is in perfect accordance with fact,-many water-spouts terminating in lions' heads still remaining on the temples. Ælian also says, that the people of the great city of Heliopolis keep lions in the vestibules or areas of the temple of their god, (the sun,) considering them to partake of a certain divine influence, according to the statements of the Egyptians themselves,' 'and temples are even dedicated to this animal.' "The figure of a lion, or the head and feet of that animal, were frequently used in chairs, tables, and various kinds of furniture, and as ornamental devices. The same idea has been common in all countries, and in the earliest specimens of Greek sculpture. The lions over the gate of Mycenae are similar to many of those which occur on the monuments of Egypt. No mummies of lions have been found in Egypt. They were not indigenous in the country, and were only kept as curiosities, or as objects of worship. In places where they were sacred, they were treated with great care, being 'fed with joints of meat, and provided with comfortable and spacious dwellings, particularly in Leontopolis, the city of lions; and songs were sung to them during the hours of their repast. The animal was even permitted to exercise its natural propensity of seizing its prey, in order that the exercise might preserve its health, for

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which purpose a calf was put into the enclosure. And having killed the victim thus offered it, the lion retired to its den, probably without exciting in the spectators any thought of the cruelty of granting this indulgence

to their favourite animal."

The lion is a native of Africa and Asia, but is not now of frequent occurrence in the latter region. Africa appears to be the true country of this noble creature, and where its highest condition is attained. It sometimes grows to the length of six or eight feet, but is not usually so large. It is a long-lived animal, having been known to attain the age of seventy years. It possesses a striking figure, a bold look, a majestic gait, a terrific voice, and a compact well-proportioned form. Such is its strength, that it can break the back of a horse with a single stroke of its paw, and throw a strong man to the ground with the sweep of its tail. It has a very broad face, surrounded with a long mane, the eyes are bright and fiery, the hair on the hinder parts of the body is short and smooth, and its general colour a pale yellow, inclining to white beneath. The roar of the lion is a deep hollow growl; but when enraged it has a different cry, which is short, broken, and reiterated. This is always excited by opposition; and upon those occasions, when the lion summons up all his terrors for the combat, nothing can be more formidable. It then lashes its sides with its long tail, its mane seems to rise and stand like bristles round its head; the skin and muscles of its face are all in agitation; its huge eyebrows half cover its glaring eyeballs; it discovers its formidable teeth and tongue, and extends its claws, which appear almost as long as a man's fingers. Prepared in this manner for war, even the boldest of the human kind are daunted at his approach, and there are no animals excepting the elephant, the rhinoceros, the tiger, and the hippopotamus, that will venture singly to engage him, which rarely happens except with the tiger, for the lion is in general the undisputed master of the forest. accustomed to measure its strength with every animal it meets, the habit of conquering renders the lion intrepid and terrible. In those regions where it has not experienced the dangerous arts and combinations of man, it has no apprehensions from his power. It boldly faces him, and seems to brave the force of his arms. Wounds rather serve to provoke its rage than to repress its ardour. Nor is it daunted by the opposition of numbers; a single lion of the desert often attacks an entire caravan, and after an obstinate combat, when it finds itself overpowered, instead of flying, it continues to combat, retreating and still facing the enemy until it dies. To this trait in its character Job seems to allude, when, complaining of his trials, he hastily said to the Almighty, "Thou huntest me as a fierce lion." (ch. 10. 16.) Hushai likewise describes the valiant among the troops of Absalom as possessing "the heart of a lion." (2Sam. 17. 10.)

Thus

Innumerable stories have been told of the courage, generosity, and affection of the lion, but a close observer of nature, Mr. Burchell, the African traveller, as the result of his personal knowledge, says, "When men first adopted the lion as an emblem of courage, it would seem that they regarded great size and strength as indicating it; but they were greatly mistaken in the character they have given to this indolent skulking animal, and have overlooked a much better example of true courage, and other virtues also, in the bold and faithful dog."

We learn from the sixth chapter of the prophet Daniel that the inhabitants of Babylon were accustomed to throw offenders to be devoured by lions kept in dens for that purpose, which is confirmed by the evidence of monuments brought to light by modern travellers, on the sites not only of Babylon, but also of Susa, which repre

sent lions destroying and preying upon human beings. One of these monuments represents a lion standing over the body of a prostrate man, extended on a pedestal which measures nine feet in length by three in breadth. The whole is from a block of stone of the ingredient and texture of granite, the scale colossal, and the sculp ture in a very barbarous style. The head has been lately knocked off; but when Mr. Rich saw it, the statue was in a perfect state, and he remarks that "the mouth had a circular aperture, into which a man might introduce his fist." (See BABYLONIAN ANTIQUITIES.) Captain Mignan likewise gives a curious representation from an engraved gem, dug out of the ruins of Babylon. It exhibits a man standing upon two sphinxes, and engaged with two fierce animals, possibly intended for lions; but this is most probably an astronomical representation. Another example is given by Sir Robert Ker Porter, which he found near the tomb of Daniel, at Susa. It is from a block of white marble. It does not exceed ten inches in width and depth, measures twenty in length, and is hollow within, as if to receive some deposit. Three of its sides are cut in bas relief, two of them with similar representations of a man apparently naked, except a sash round his waist, and a sort of cap on his head. His hands are bound behind him. The corner of the stone forms the neck of the figure, so that its head forms one of its ends. Two lions in sitting postures appear on either side at the top, each having a paw on the head of a man.

The allusions to lions in the prophetic portions of the Holy Scriptures are numerous, a lion being in general the symbol of either a king, an empire, or a powerful people. Thus, a lion is in general the symbol of a king. Judah is styled a lion's whelp, and is compared to a lion and lioness couching, whom no one dares to rouse. (Gen. 49. 9.) The warlike character and the conquests of this tribe are here prophetically described. Grotius Grotius says the passage in Ezekiel 19. 2,4 is an allusion to Genesis 49. 9. Judæa was among the nations like a lioness among the beasts of the forest; she had strength and sovereignty. The whelp mentioned in verse 3 means Jehoahaz, the son of Josiah, whom Pharaoh Necho put in bonds and carried into Egypt. (2Kings 23. 33,34.) Or, as the prophet Ezekiel says, (19. 8,) “He was taken in their pit," referring to the practice of the Arabs, who dig a pit where the lions are observed to enter, and, covering it slightly with reeds or small branches of trees, frequently decoy and catch them.

The prophet Amos says, "The lion hath roared, who will not fear?" (ch. 3. 8,) and the prophet Joel says, "The Lord also shall roar out of Zion," (ch. 3. 16,) these metaphorical expressions seeming to intimate both the courage of the Jews fighting under Divine protection, and the certainty of their success. The words, "The heavens and the earth shall shake," are a continuation of the metaphor. As a lion, when he roars, makes the woods or plains to resound, and the beasts of the field to tremble, so God, being here by the prophet compared to this fierce creature, his voice is justly said to make the very heavens and earth shake.

In Daniel's vision of the four great beasts it is said, (ch. 7. 4,) "The first was like a lion, and had eagle's wings," which is supposed to refer to the Chaldæan or Babylonian empire. (Jerem. 4. 7.) Its progress to what was then deemed universal empire, was rapid, and therefore it is described as having the wings of an eagle. (Jerem. 48. 40; Ezek. 17. 3.)

The prophet Isaiah says, "Wo to Ariel, to Ariel (or the lion of God) the city where David dwelt." Jerusalem is here denoted, and the terms used appear to signify the strength of the place, by which it was enabled to resist

and overcome all its enemies. (See ARIEL.) Vitringa, in his Commentary on Isaiah, supposes that David, according to the Eastern custom, was called the Lion of God, and so the city was called by this name from him. The Arabs, indeed, in later ages, have often called their great men by this honourable term; D'Herbelot tells us that Ali, Mahommed's son-in-law, was so called.

The prophet Jeremiah says, "The lion is come up from his thicket," (4. 7,) which undoubtedly refers to Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon.

The prophet Nahum says, "Where is the dwelling of the lions, and the feeding-place of the young lions? where the lion, even the old lion walked, and the lion's whelp, and none made them afraid. The lion did tear in pieces enough for his whelps, and strangled for his lionesses, and filled his holes with prey, and his dens with ravine." (ch. 2. 11,12.) The allegory, as Newcome remarks, is extremely beautiful. Where are the inhabitants of Nineveh, who were strong and rapacious like lions?

So

The Apostle Paul says, (2. Tim. 4. 17,) "I was delivered out of the mouth of the lion." The general opinion is, that Nero is here meant, or rather his prefect Ælius Cæsarianus, to whom Nero committed the government of the city of Rome during his absence, with power to put to death whomsoever he pleased. when Tiberius died, Marsyas said to Agrippa, "The lion is dead." And so speaks Esther of Artaxerxes, in the apocryphal chapters of that book, (ch. 14. 13,) "Put a word into my mouth before the lion." There are some commentators who regard the Apostle's expression as a proverbial one, for a deliverance from any great and imminent danger; but others conclude that he had been actually delivered from a lion let loose against him in the amphitheatre.

That the same symbol should sometimes be applied to opposite characters is not at all surprising or inconsistent, since different qualities may reside in the symbol, of which the good may be referred to one, the bad to another. Thus, in the lion reside courage and victory over antagonists. In these respects it may be and is employed as a symbol of Our Lord Jesus Christ, who is called the lion of the tribe of Judah, (Rev. 5. 5,) whose emblem was the lion-the whole Jewish polity being called a Lion, on account of the singular firmness and stability of its government, which lasted till the time of Christ, and was merged in Him who from that time became eminently the Lion of the tribe of Judah. In the lion also reside fierceness and rapacity. In this point of view it is used as a fit emblem of Satan: "Be sober, be vigilant; because your adversary the devil, as a roaring lion, walketh about, seeking whom he may devour." (1 Peter 5. 8.)

LIP, DW saphah. This word, literally meaning "lip," is often employed figuratively in the Scriptures. Thus we read of "a man of lips," (Job 11. 2, margin,) for a babbler, and of "the lip of truth," (Prov. 12. 19;) the word is likewise used for language or dialect, (Gen. 11. 1, margin; Isai. 19. 18, margin;) as also for the brim, edge, border, as of a vessel, (1Kings 7. 26;) of a garment, (Exod. 28. 23;) of a river or sea, (Gen. 22. 17; 41. 3;) and of a country. (Judges 7. 22.)

The prophet Hosea says, speaking of the repentance to which he exhorted Israel, "Turn to the Lord; say unto him, Take away all iniquity, and receive us graciously. So will we render the calves of our lips;" that is, as the Apostle Paul explains it in Hebrews 13. 15. "the fruit of our lips," "the sacrifice of praise to God continually," instead of "bleeding victims."

The Psalmist says, "All they that see me laugh

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me to scorn; they shoot out the lip, they shake the head." Roberts says, in India, "It is exceedingly contemptuous to protrude the lower lip; and, generally speaking, it is only done to those of a mean condition. Those who cannot grant a favour, or who have not the power to perform something they have been requested to do, shoot out the lip. To shake the head, is a favourite way of giving the negative, and is also a mark of disdain."

LITANY, a general supplication used in public worship. "The words Tavetal and XiTai, litanies, in Latin, supplicationes and rogationes, in their original signification," says Bingham, "are but another name for prayers in general of whatever kind, that either were made publicly in the church, or by any private person." About A.D. 400, litanies began to be used in processions, the people walking barefoot, and repeating them with great devotion; and it is pretended that, by this means, several countries were delivered from great calamities. Such a litany as that established by Mamercus, bishop of Vienne, in the middle of the fifth century, was called Litania Major, to distinguish it, as Bingham supposes, from the shorter form, Kyrie eleeison, or the Litania Minor. Gregory the Great instituted a greater litany at Rome, to be celebrated yearly on the 25th of April, which was called Litania Septiformis, from the circumstance that the church was ordered, on that occasion, to go in procession in seven distinct classes. These classes were arranged in the following orders; first, the clergy, then the laymen, monks, virgins, married women, widows, the poor, and the children. The days on which litanies were used were called rogation days; these were appointed by the canons of different councils, till it was decreed by the council of Toledo that they should be used every month throughout the year; and thus by degrees they came to be used weekly on Wednesdays and Fridays, the ancient days for fasting. Almost every saint in the Romish calendar has his litany, in which the people respond, Ora pro nobis, "Pray for us." Riddle's Manual of Christian Antiquities.

LITTER, 3 tsab, plural ' tsabim; Sept. Xaμmηvn, denotes a kind of wagon, or litter. (Isai. 66. 20.) The margin of our version reads "coaches." In Numbers 7. 3, covered carts, or wagons, are called by agaloth tsab; Sept. apažai, λaμπnvikai; Vulg. plaustra tecta. In Isaiah, the word may very probably refer to the Oriental palanquin, or litter, which was in use in Egypt, and is still employed in

Egyptian Litter. From the Monuments. one form or other throughout the East; and we have ample evidence that many of the luxuries and refinements of Egypt were adopted in Palestine. The litter

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still in use in some parts of Asia which do not possess the elephant, is shaped something like the howdah, but generally longer, to afford the rider the advantage of reclining at his ease. It is generally closed except in front, or partly open on one or both sides, but often it has only curtains more or less rich, which may be drawn as the rider wishes. This is not carried on the back of any animal, but is borne, after the manner of a sedan-chair, or an ordinary palanquin, between two camels or mules, and, from its stately and often splendid appearance, has the Persian name of takht ravan, or "moving throne."

The Egyptian palanquin was borne on men's shoulders, and our cut exhibits a military man in a palanquin, with a parasol. That such were used in ancient times in the army may be inferred from Ezekiel 29. 18, where it is said, "Son of man, Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, caused his army to serve a great service against Tyrus; every head was made bald, and every shoulder was peeled; yet had he no wages, nor his army, for Tyrus, for the service that he had served against it." Roberts says this passage "affords a striking illustration of the condition of those who have not been accustomed to carry the palanquin. During the first day, the skin is literally peeled off. To prevent the pole from galling the shoulder, the coolies have cushions, or a piece of the plantain tree put under the pole. The shoulders of those who assisted at the siege against Tyre were peeled by hard labour."

Covered couches are known from the monuments of Egypt to have been used by ladies of distinction. See CART.

LITURGY. This term denotes in general all the ceremonies belonging to Divine service. The word comes from the Greek NetTоupyia, "service, public ministry," formed of XeTos, "public," and prov "work." In a more restricted signification, liturgy is used among Protestants to signify the Common Prayer, and among Romanists, the Mass. The liturgies formed upon the model of that contained in the Apostolical Constitutions, which were used in different churches, have been conveniently divided into several families or classes. (I.) The great Oriental liturgy, which seems to have prevailed in all churches from the Euphrates to the Hellespont, and thence to the southern extremity of Greece. (II.) The Alexandrian, or the ancient liturgy of Egypt, Abyssinia, and the country extending along the Mediterranean Sea to the West. (III.) The Roman, which prevailed throughout the whole of Italy, Sicily, and the civil diocese of Africa. (IV.) The Gallican, which was used throughout Gaul and Spain, and probably in the exarchate of Ephesus until the fourth century.

I. THE ORIENTAL LITURGY, according to Riddle, from whose Manual of Christian Antiquities this sketch is principally taken, includes, as its variations, the liturgy of Antioch, which prevailed (probably) in the fourth century from Arabia to Cappadocia, and from the Mediterranean to the other side of the Euphrates; the liturgy of Basil of Cæsarea, which prevailed in the fourth century through the greater part of Asia Minor; and that of Chrysostom, or Constantinople, which was used in Thrace (probably) in the fourth century, and was adopted also in Macedonia and Greece. Mr. Palmer, in his Origines Liturgica, supposes that this liturgy may have originated with the Apostles themselves; but he cannot trace it beyond the writings of Justin Martyr, and even in the words of that author the allusion is extremely remote and uncertain. It should be remembered that the works of the earliest writers of the

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Church were in the hands of the compilers of liturgies; | period, used another liturgy, which bears the name of and that they would naturally regulate their compositions Chrysostom." The order of the part of Chrysostom's according to any hints or apparent outlines which those liturgy which follows the dismissal of the catechumens venerable records might contain. This appears to be a is identical with that of Basil. "We may justly conmuch more satisfactory mode of tracing the resemblance sider the main substance and order to be as old as the between ancient liturgies and the prayers mentioned in fourth century." primitive writings, than that of supposing both the one and the other to have originated in some Apostolical institution, and that "there were set prescribed offices and forms of prayer and praise, and professions of faith, delivered to all the churches of Christ by the Apostles, or their immediate successors." The liturgy of Basil can be traced, with some degree of certainty, to the fourth century; but we have no proof of the existence of any other of these ancient formularies earlier than the fifth century.

1. Liturgy of Antioch.-In the patriarchate of Antioch, an ancient orthodox liturgy was used, which was ascribed to the Apostle James, and bears a striking resemblance to the liturgy presented in the Apostolical Constitutions. "We cannot trace back the appellation of St. James's liturgy," says Mr. Palmer, "as given to that of Jerusalem and Antioch, beyond the fifth century. I am persuaded that this appellation began after the time of Basil, exarch of Cæsarea, about A.D. 380."

2. Liturgy of Basil or of Cæsarea.-Basil wrote a liturgy, or rather enlarged and improved certain existing formularies; but as several different texts now extant bear his name, it is difficult to say which of them may be rightly regarded as having proceeded from his pen. Probably that of Constantinople may be correctly attributed to him. The Constantinopolitan liturgy contains, indeed, some passages inserted after the time of Basil; | but as to its general form and substance, it may be supposed to be that which prevailed at Cæsarea in Cappadocia during the latter part of the fourth century. When this liturgy was introduced into the patriarchate of Alexandria, it appears to have been subjected to various alterations; and to have been accommodated, in a great measure, to the ancient Alexandrian or Egyptian liturgy, which bore the name of St. Mark.

"From a period antecedent to the council of Chalcedon, A.D. 451, the patriarch of Constantinople became possessed of the jurisdiction which had anciently belonged to the exarch of Cæsarea; and the liturgy of Basil was (probably at an early period) received by the patriarchs of Constantinople, and the churches under their jurisdiction, so that, to the present day, it is used by those churches."

"This was the form which soon prevailed throughout the whole exarchate of Caesarea and the patriarchate of Constantinople, where it has remained in use ever since. This was the form which was received by all the patriarchate of Antioch, translated into Coptic, revised by the patriarchs of Alexandria, and admitted into their church, used alike by the orthodox and heretics. At this day, after the lapse of near fifteen hundred years, the liturgy of Basil prevails, without any substantial variety, from the northern shores of Russia to the extremities of Abyssinia, and from the Adriatic and Baltic Seas to the farthest coast of Asia. In one respect, this liturgy must be considered as the most valuable that we possess. We can trace back the words and expressions of the greater portion to about the year 370 or 380. This is not the case with any other liturgy. The expressions of all other liturgies we cannot certainly trace in general beyond the fifth century."

3. Liturgy of Chrysostom, or of Constantinople."Besides the liturgy of Basil, the churches subject to the patriarch of Constantinople have, from a remote

II. ALEXANDRIAN LITURGY.-The patriarchate of Alexandria possessed an ancient liturgy, which was attributed to St. Mark, probably for the first time, about the end of the fourth century, or beginning of the fifth. In the early part of the fifth century, the liturgy was enlarged by Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria; and hence it was afterwards called Cyril's by the Monophysites, whilst the orthodox continued to distinguish it by the older appellation of St. Mark's. "The difference between this liturgy and the great Oriental liturgy of Antioch, Caesarea, and Constantinople, is in the order of the parts. The general and solemn prayers for men and things occurred in the middle of the Egyptian eucharistia or thanksgiving, and before the hymn Ter sanctus. In the Oriental liturgy, the general prayers are deferred till after the end of the benediction of the gifts. ther peculiarity of this rite was the direction of the deacon to the people, during the course of the thanksgiving, 'to arise,' 'look towards the east,' and 'attend' orsing' the hymn Ter sanctus. Of this there is nothing to be found in any other rite."

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III. ROMAN LITURGY.-It has been supposed that the Roman Liturgy was composed by Gregory the Great, bishop of Rome, in the latter part of the sixth century; but some writers are of opinion that Gregory merely revised or improved a liturgy which he found already in use. Vigilius, a predecessor of Gregory, in an epistle written in the year 538, speaks of the text of the canon then existing as having been received from Apostolical tradition. "This liturgy was substantially the same in the time of Gelasius, A.D. 492, as it was in that of Gregory; it appears to have been the same in the time of Innocentius at the beginning of the fifty century, and was esteemed, at that time, and in the subsequent age, to be of Apostolical antiquity." Traces of higher antiquity than the early part of the fifth century are, however, merely conjectural. In this liturgy, the kiss of peace is not presented until after the consecration of the elements, which constitutes a remarkable variation from the liturgies of Antioch, Cæsarea, Constantinople, and all the East.

1. Milanese Liturgy.-The liturgy of Milan, commonly attributed to Ambrose, is substantially the same as that of Rome until the time of Gregory the Great; and appears to have been derived from the same origin. "In the time of Gregory, the church of Milan did not adopt the chief alteration made by him. From that time, if not previously, the liturgy of Milan began to be considered a peculiar rite; and, as the Romans gave their sacramentaries the names of Gelasius and Gregory, so the Milanese gave theirs the name of Ambrose; who, in fact, may have composed some parts of it. After the time of Gregory, the Milan liturgy doubtless received several additions. The earliest ecclesiastical writer who has been cited as speaking of the Ambrosian rite is Walafred Strabo, who died A.D. 849.

2. The African Liturgy agreed substantially with the ancient Roman; except that it contained an invocation of the Holy Spirit to sanctify the elements, conforming in this respect to the Oriental forms. It is probable that the first African bishops were ordained at Rome; and that they made their congregations acquainted with the liturgy and ritual of the motherchurch.

IV. GALLICAN LITURGY.-An ancient liturgy, dif

LITURGY-LIVER.

fering materially in many respects from those of Rome and Milan, was used in Gaul until the time of Charlemagne, when it was exchanged for the Roman by a decree of that prince. Mr. Palmer regards the church of Lyons as the source from which this peculiar liturgy was derived; and from the original connexion of that church with the East, he deems it probable that the ancient Gallican liturgy and rites were derived from the churches of Asia and Phrygia. Indeed, he seems disposed, by the aid of tradition and conjecture, to refer it to the Apostle John.

This liturgy bore a strong resemblance to the Oriental form. "The chief difference between the Gallican, and Oriental liturgies consisted in this, that the prayer for the living and departed members of the Church occurred after the thanksgiving and consecration in the Oriental liturgy; while, in the Gallican, they preceded the salutation of peace and thanksgiving. There is another difference; namely, that the Gallican had not the three prayers of the faithful, which seem to have been introduced into the Oriental liturgy about the early part of the fourth century."

1. The Mozarabic or Spanish Liturgy, appears to have agreed very nearly with the ancient Gallican, in its general substance, and as to the number and order of its parts. From the writings of Isidore of Seville, and Vigilius of Rome, it appears that the liturgy of the Spanish churches was distinct from that of the Roman, in the sixth century. The original model and substance of the Spanish liturgy was probably derived from the Gallican church; and the form thus received was doubtless modified by the alterations and additions of Isidore, Leander, and other Spanish bishops. Isidore attributes the origin of this liturgy to St. Peter.

2. Liturgy of Ephesus.—Mr. Palmer thinks it highly probable that a liturgy resembling the ancient Gallican prevailed in the exarchate of Ephesus until the fourth century, when it may have been altered by the council of Laodicea, in order to make it conformable to the great Oriental rite, which has been used there ever since.

3. British Liturgy.-The ancient Gallican form may have been adopted in Britain at first. From the time of Patrick, (A.D. 432,) the Irish probably used the Roman liturgy. The ancient British liturgy may have been introduced into Ireland about a century after; and both forms may have been used at the same time in different parts of the island.

The Anglo-Saxon liturgy was formed from the Sacramentary of Gregory the Great, which was brought to England by Augustine and his companions at the end of the sixth or beginning of the seventh century. "As, however, each bishop had the power of making some improvements in the liturgy of his church, in process of time different customs arose, and several became so established as to receive the names of their respective churches. Thus gradually the 'Uses' or customs of York, Sarum, Hereford, Bangor, Lincoln, Aberdeen, &c., came to be distinguished from each other."

It appears that "the four original forms, from which all the liturgies in the world have been taken, resemble one another too much to have grown up independently, and too little to have been copied from one another. They were probably all constructed upon the basis of the form prescribed in the Apostolical Constitutions; or, at all events, were composed in conformity with some model of the third or fourth century. The prayers for the dead, which they contain, are unscriptural, and therefore unwarranted and vain; some expressions in the consecration of the elements are obvious departures from primitive doctrine; and the appropriation of false titles,

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introduced after the composition and first use of the forms themselves, is as plainly opposed to Christian simplicity and truth. But, together with these defects, we recognise in these ancient formularies much that is truly pious and devotional. It has been the wisdom of our Church to retain what is excellent in these forms, while she has rejected what is spurious and wrong. May all the members of that Church make a devout and thankful use of these venerable addresses to the throne of grace, purified as they now are from base alloy, and admirably adapted to assist the aspirations of the pious Christian in the most solemn offices of religion. While we 'hold fast' every form of sound words,' let us pray with the spirit,' and 'pray with the understanding also.""

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The Liturgy of the Church of England was compiled in the year 1547, and established in the second year of King Edward VI. Three years afterwards it was revised, because some things were contained in that liturgy which showed a compliance with the superstition of those times, and exceptions were taken against it by some learned men at home and by Calvin abroad. Several alterations were made in it, which consisted in adding the general confession and absolution, and in making the communion to begin with the ten commandments. The use of oil in confirmation and extreme unction was left out, and also prayers for souls departed, and what related to a belief of Christ's real presence in the eucharist. This liturgy, so reformed, was established by the acts of 5 and 6 Edward VI., cap. 1. However, it was abolished by Queen Mary, who enacted, that the service should stand as it was most commonly used in the last year of the reign of King Henry VIII. That of Edward VI. was re-established with some alterations by Elizabeth. Some further alterations were introduced, in consequence of the revision by order of King James, in the first year of his reign, particularly in the office of private baptism, and other passages, with the addition of five or six new prayers and thanksgivings, and all that part of the catechism which contains the doctrine of the sacraments. The Book of Common Prayer, so altered, remained in force from the first year of King James I. to the fourteenth of Charles II.; the last revision of the liturgy being effected in 1661.

The Liturgy of the Roman church consists of the Breviary, containing the matins, lauds, &c.; the Missal, or volume employed in saying mass, containing likewise the Calendar, the general rubrics, or rites of that mass; the Ceremonial, containing the offices peculiar to the pope, such as consecration, benediction, canonization, &c.; the Pontificale, which describes the functions of bishops at ordinations, consecrations of churches, &c.; and the Ritual, containing the services as performed by the priests, both in public worship and in private. The whole of this liturgy is performed in Latin.

LIVER, kabid. This word occurs in Exodus 29. 13 in the directions for the sacrifice at the consecration of the priests. Calmet, in his Commentaire Littéral, in reference to this passage, cites Athenæus in evidence, that the ancients ate the liver covered with, or enfolded in the caul; and he thinks it probable that the liver of the victim was, in the same manner, wrapped up in the caul before it was laid upon the altar; and this is what Moses means by the "caul above" or upon "the liver."

In Lamentations 2. 11 we read, "My liver is poured upon the earth;" which is an expression of great lamentation. Among the Hebrews, the liver as well as the heart was regarded as the seat of the passions and the

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