sight, which is at the top, where they let down the oyle for the lamp; the lamp is a very great one, continually burning."

MAD, Y shaga; pavia. (Deut. 28. 34; 1Sam. 21. 13.) The epithet "mad," is applied to several descriptions of persons in the Scriptures:-(1.) To one deprived of reason. (Acts 26. 24; 1Cor. 14. 23.) (2.) To one whose reason is depraved and overruled by the fury of his angry passions. (Acts 26. 11.) (3.) To one whose mind is so bewildered and disturbed that he acts in an uncertain, extravagant, and irregular manner. (Deut. 28. 34; Eccl. 7. 7.) (4.) To one who is infatuated by the vehemence of his desires after idols and vanities, (Jerem. 50. 38;) or after folly, deceit, and falsehood. (Hosea 9. 7.) See DISEASES; POSSESSION.

MADAI, was the third son of Japhet, (Gen. 10. 2,) from whom the Medes are supposed to have been descended. See MEDIA.

MADIAN. See MIDIAN.

MADMANNAH, (Josh. 15. 31,) a city in the southern part of the tribe of Judah, not far from Ziklag. It was inhabited by the posterity of Shaaph, one of the sons of Caleb. (1Chron. 2. 49.)

MADNESS. The madness of David is by some commentators supposed not to have been feigned, but a real epilepsy. It is urged in support of this opinion that the troubles which David underwent might very naturally weaken his constitutional strength, and that what he suffered in being obliged to seek shelter in a foreign court would disturb his imagination in the highest degree. A due consideration, however, of the context, and all the circumstances, only serves to strengthen the opinion that it was feigned for obvious reasons. (1Sam. 21. 12-15.) See LUNATIC.

MAGDALA, Maydaλa, (Matt. 15. 39,) a place on the western shore of the lake of Gennesareth, south of Capernaum, and a few miles north of Tiberias. It is supposed to have contained within its precincts Dalmanutha; hence, while St. Matthew says, "Christ came into the coasts of Magdala," St. Mark says more particularly (ch. 8. 10,) that "he came into the parts of Dalmanutha."

he "

Mr. Buckingham, in his Travels in Palestine, says came to a small village called Migdol, close to the edge of the lake, beneath a range of high cliffs, in which small grottoes are seen, with the remains of an old square tower, and some larger buildings of rude construction, apparently of great antiquity. Migdol implies a tower or fortress; and this place, from having this name particularly applied to it, was, doubtless, like the Egyptian Migdol, one of considerable importance; and may be considered as the site of the Migdol of the Naphtalites, as well as the Magdala of the New Testament." See DALMANUTHA.

MAGDALENE. See MARY MAGDALENE.

MAGI, □ Magim. The word Mayor, rendered "wise men," in Matthew 2. 1, is derived from mag, which signifies a priest, in the Pehlvi language; it is the appellation of an ancient caste of priests with the Persians and Medians. Vossius derives the word from hhaga, to meditate, whence 'n mahhagim, people addicted to meditation. The Magi, or Magians, formed one of the two grand sects into which the idolatry of the

years

world was divided between five and six hundred before Christ. These abominated all those images which were worshipped by the other sect denominated Sabians, and paid their worship to the Deity under the emblem of fire. The Magi believed that there were two principles, one the cause of all good, the other the cause of all evil; in which opinion they were afterwards followed by the sect of the Manichees. (See MANICHEES.) They called the good principle Jezden and Ormuzd; and the evil principle Ahriman, or Aherman. The former was by the Greeks called Oromasdes, and the latter Arimanius. They worshipped fire because they looked upon it as the truest symbol of Oromasdes, or the good god, as darkness was of Arimanius, or the evil god. In all their temples they had fire continually burning upon their altars, and in their own dwellings.

The Magian was originally a Median sect, and on the subversion of that monarchy by Cyrus, its professors were unfavourably regarded by their Persian conquerors. Their chief men attempted to regain their political importance by raising one of their number to the throne, in opposition to Cambyses, but their scheme failed, and involved them in ruin, Smerdis, their puppet, and his principal adherents, being put to death by Darius Hystaspes. The whole sect of the Magians would soon have sunk into utter extinction, if it had not in a few years after this period been revived and reformed by Zoroaster. This celebrated philosopher, called by the Persians, Zerdusht or Zaratush, began, about the thirtysixth year of the reign of Darius Hystaspes, to restore and reform the Magian system of religion. He was not only skilled in all the learning of the East that prevailed in his time, but was likewise thoroughly versed in the Jewish religion, and in all the sacred writings of the Old Testament that were then extant, whence some writers have inferred that he was a Jew both by birth and profession; and others even affirm that he had been servant to one of the prophets, probably Ezekiel or Daniel. He made his first appearance in Media in the city of Xiz, now called Azerbijan, as some say; or according to others, in Ecbatana, now called Hamadan. Instead of admitting the existence of two first causes with the Magians, he introduced a principle superior to them both, one supreme God, who created both these, and out of these two produced, according to his sovereign pleasure, everything else.

Notwithstanding the strongest opposition of the Sabians, Zoroaster had the address to bring over Darius to his reformed religion, and from that time Magianism became the national religion of the country, until it was supplanted by that of Mohammed. Zoroaster composed a book containing the principles of the Magian religion called the Zendavesta, and by contraction Zend. So great an improvement in the moral character and influence of the religion of a whole nation as was effected by Zoroaster, is certainly not paralleled in the ancient history of the religion of mankind, and can scarcely be thought possible unless by the occurrence of some very impressive events; and as there are so many authorities for fixing the time of Zoroaster or Zeratusht not many years subsequent to the death of the great Cyrus, the events connected with the conquest of Babylon may account for his success in that reformation of religion of which he was the author; for, had not the minds of men been prepared for this change by something extraordinary, it is not probable that they would have adopted a purer faith from him. The Jews were sent into captivity to Babylon to be reformed from their idolatrous propensities, and their reformation commenced with their calamities; a miracle was then wrought in favour of three Hebrew confessors of the existence of the only

one true God in the presence of the king, and "all the rulers of the provinces," that the issue of this controversy between Jehovah and idolatry might be made known throughout that vast empire. Nor are we to suppose the impression confined to the court; for the history of the three Hebrew youths, of Nebuchadnezzar's dream, of his sickness and reformation from idolatry, of the interpretation of the handwriting on the wall by Daniel, of his deliverance from the lions, and the fact of the prophecy of Isaiah respecting Cyrus, were too recent, too public, and too striking in their nature not to be often and largely talked of. Besides, in the prophecy respecting Cyrus, the intention of Almighty God in recording the name of that monarch in an inspired book, and showing beforehand that he had chosen him to overturn the Babylonian empire, is expressly mentioned as having reference to two great objects; first, the deliverance of Israel, and second, the making known his supreme divinity among the nations of the earth. (See CYRUS.) It was, therefore, intended by this proceeding on the part of Providence to teach not only Cyrus, but the people of his vast empire and surrounding nations:-(1.) That the God of the Jews was Jehovah, the self-existing, the eternal God. (2.) That He was God alone, there being no deity beside himself; and (3.) That good and evil, represented by light and darkness, were neither independent nor eternal subsistences, but his great instruments, and under his control

The Persians, who had so vastly extended their empire by the conquest of the countries formerly held by the monarchs of Babylon, were thus prepared for such a reformation of their religion as Zoroaster effected. The principles he advocated had been previously adopted by Cyrus and other Persian monarchs, and probably by many of the principal persons of that nation. Zoroaster himself thus became acquainted with the great truths contained in this famous prophecy, which attacked the foundations of every idolatrous system. From the other sacred books of the Jews, who mixed with the Persians in every part of the empire, he evidently learned more. He found the people prepared to admit his reformations, and he carried them.

This cannot but be considered as one instance of several merciful dispensations of God to the Gentile world, through his own peculiar people the Jews, by which the idolatries of the heathen were often checked. That this dispensation of mercy was afterwards neglected among the Persians, is certain. How long the effect continued we know not, nor how widely it spread; perhaps longer and wider than may now distinctly appear. If the Magi who came from the East to seek Christ were Persians, some true worshippers of God would appear to have remained in Persia to that day; and if, as is probable, the prophecies of Isaiah and Daniel were retained among them, they might be among those who "waited for redemption," not at Jerusalem, but in a distant part of the world. The Parsees, who were nearly exterminated by Mohammedan fanaticism, were charged by their oppressors with the idolatry of fire, and this was probably true of the multitude. Some of their writers, however, warmly defended themselves against the charge.

A considerable number of them remain in

India to this day, and profess to have the books of

Zoroaster.

The term Magi was anciently used generally throughout the East to distinguish wise men, philosophers, and others who devoted themselves to the study of the moral and physical sciences, and who particularly cultivated astrology and medicine. The wise men from the East, who came to worship the infant Messiah, were no doubt phi

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losophers of this description. As they were constantly studying the face of the heavens, and carefully noting every remarkable appearance, the luminous body which appeared on this occasion could not escape their notice. This they were instructed to consider as denoting the birth of "the king of the Jews." It could not now be determined whether they obtained this information by the special favour of God, or spontaneously connected its appearance with the report which then prevailed, that a mighty sovereign might be speedily expected to arise in Judæa. This connexion was sufficiently obvious, for the ancients had a notion that stars or other luminous bodies appeared at the birth and death of distinguished persons, and the Jews themselves have always entertained the expectation that a star would appear at the time of the advent of the Messiah. These Magi are said to have come from the East, probably either from Mesopotamia or Persia. Others think, from the offerings they presented, they must have come from Arabia. This does not necessarily follow: Arabia, it must be recollected, was rather to the south than to the east of Judæa. They may be regarded as members of the old patriarchal church, never quite extinguished among the heathen, and they were permitted to present the homage of the Gentile world to the infant Saviour.

Hyde, in his Religio Veterum Persarum, quotes from Bar Bahlul the Syrian, who says that the Magi that visited Christ were Persians, sons of Elam, the son of Shem; and he afterwards pretends to give a list of their names, and that they were thirty in number; of this, it is unnecessary to state, that it is a mere piece of fiction, probably the invention of some monks. Hyde states that they came from Parthia, where the same religion was professed as that of the ancient Persians. An old writer on the religion of the Parsees, principally derived from the Zendavesta, says, "These Persians or Parsees are a people descended from the ancient Persians, in times not long after the Flood, who then had their native kings and governors; but war, that causeth an alteration in states and empires, brought upon them a foreign sceptre. About nine hundred and ninety-six years elapsed, one Yesdegerd was native king of Persia, who had his residence in the city of Yesd, near unto the old city of Ispahan, which is somewhat remote from the new city known by that name; this city of Yesd was a goodly city in those times (as these use to be where kings keepe their courts) when this people lived in flourishing prosperity.

"What time the Arabian captaines of the sect of Mahomet made invasion into this country, about the nineteenth yeare of his reigne, who having before been newly assaulted by a great multitude of Turkes, he was forced to flye to Karason, where he dyed sodainly in the twentieth yeare of his reigne, being the five-and-fortieth king that descended from the race of Guiamaras, and the last in whom the ancient Persian monarchie concluded. The Mahometans, upon the death of Yesdegerd, carried all in conquest before them, and subjected the natives of the country as vassals unto them; and as new lords bring in new lawes, they contented not themselves to bring them to their form of government in state subjection, but also in matters of religion to live according to Mahomet's constitutions, compelling them to be circumcised according to the Mahometan custome, contrary to the forme of their own religion and worship. These Parsees, not enduring to live contrary to the prescript of their own lawe, and less able to reject their yoke, many of them by privy escape, and as close conveyance as they might of their goods and substance, determined a voyage for the Indies, proposing to prove the mildness of the Banian Rajahs, if there, though they lived in subjection

for matter of government, they might obtain liberty of conscience in course of religion." Having described their settlement in India, the writer goes on to state their religious opinions, the history of Zerdust or Zoroaster, and the book delivered to him; and with reference to their worship of fire he observes that Zerdust "being rapt up to heaven, had fire delivered unto him from God, and brought it thence together with the booke of their law, as the worship by them to be embraced; moreover, they affirme that Zerdust, being in the forementioned rapture in the place of glory, did not see God, but heard him speaking to him out of the fire, and when the fire was delivered, received it as the vertue of God, and his first-born of excellencie, and for these causes to be worshipped and reverenced. This fire consisted of that fire, that is made by the sparkes flying from the flint, by the smiting of a steele. Secondly, of that fire that is made by the rubbing of two pieces of wood together, a custom much used amongst the heathens of ruder manners, by which they kindle their fires in all places where they neede. Thirdly, of such fire as is occasioned by lightning falling on some tree or thing accendible. Fourthly, of such fire as is called wildfire, which, flying from place to place, and lighting on matter combustible, consumeth it. Fifthly, of artificial fire, made of coals or wood most ordinarie in use. Sixthly, of the fire wherewith the Banians use to burne the bodies of their dead. Seventhly, of the fire that is made by burning glasses, and the beames of the sunne; of all these ingredients they compose their idolatrous fire, which they call their Antesbeheraun, or religious fire." Religion of the Parsees, 1630.

Those who remain of this sect in Persia and India in the present day retain the same doctrines. The modern Magi, or fire-worshippers, are divided into three classes; of which the first, and most learned, neither eat nor kill animals, but adhere to the old institution of abstaining from all living creatures. The Magi of the second class refrain only from tame animals; nor do the last kill all indifferently, it being the firm and distinguishing settled notion of them all that there is a transmigration of souls.

M. Anquetil du Perron informs us, "Of the Persees or Parsees, the disciples of Zoroaster, a very numerous body has been established more than nine hundred years in Guzerat, to which place they came fugitives from Kerman, (A.D. 767,) on account of the Mohammedan persecutions, where their genius for commerce and industry, which are their known characteristics, procured for them very considerable settlements." Concerning the hierarchy of the Parsees, this writer observes that "their ministers of religion are divided into five classes, erbeds, mobeds, destours, destour mobeds, and destouran destours, or destours of destours. An erbed is a person who has submitted to the purification directed by the law, who has read during four days, without interval, the Izeschne and the Vendidad, and who is instructed in the ceremonies of the worship established by Zoroaster. If the erbed afterwards continues to read publicly the Zend works which constitute the liturgy, and to perform the ministerial functions, he becomes a mobed, though he does not understand the Zendavesta; but if he contents himself with studying the law, the Zend and the Pehlvi, or Pehlavi, without exercising the ministerial functions, he is called a destour. The destour mobed is he who unites the qualifications of the mobed and destour; and the destouran destour is the principal destour of a city or province, who decides cases of conscience, and determines points of law, and to whom the Parsees pay a tithe of their revenues."

MAGIC, MAGICIAN. The word 》 mag, signifies a magician. In Jeremiah 39. 3, we read of rab mag, the chief of the magicians who accompanied the king to war. Though not so styled, Balaam was thus employed by Balak, king of Moab, (Numb. ch. 23,) and this, like so many other ancient customs, yet prevails in the East, as in the last war (1823) the Burmese assembled magicians and witches in large numbers, who attended on their general, and were engaged in performing mystic ceremonies, and uttering maledictions on the British army.

In the earlier ages, all who applied themselves to the study of natural or metaphysical philosophy were accounted magicians, on which account the patriarchal Mughan of the Persians became metamorphosed into magicians, or Mayol, by those who knew not their ancient philosophy and opinions. The term magic, therefore, originally conveyed a good meaning, being used to signify the study of wisdom, and the more sublime parts of knowledge as taught by the Magi; but in process of time, as it became connected with astrology, divination, and sorcery, the term was used only to signify an unlawful kind of science, supposed to depend on the influence of evil and departed spirits.

Magic has been divided into natural, which consists in the application of natural active causes to passive subjects, by means of which many surprising, but yet simply natural effects are produced; celestial, which attributes to spirits a kind of rule or dominion over the planets, and to these an influence over the affairs of men; and diabolical, which consists in the invocation of demons with a view to produce effects seemingly surpassing the powers of nature. All such arts of imposture were strictly forbidden by the law of Moses, under pain of death, as being connected with idolatry. (Exod. 22. 18; Levit. 20. 27; Deut. 18. 10.) Yet in every period there were numbers among the Israelites who were strongly addicted to these forbidden practices. (2Kings 17. 17; 2Chron. 33. 6; Isai. 2. 6; 57.3; Jerem. 29. 9; Mal. 3. 5.) As in Egypt, so in Babylon, the office of magician belonged to the priestly caste. (Exod. 7. 11; Dan. 2. 2; Isai. 47. 9,12.) Under the word INCHANTERS will be found some of the various terms applied to these unlawful arts, and the various distinctions obtained from the different modes employed in practising these delusions; likewise under DIVINATION, some of the various branches into which this widelyspread imposture had extended itself.

Sir John Gardner Wilkinson remarks of the ancient Egyptians, that "they considered themselves the first to suggest the idea of foretelling, from the natal hour, the future fortunes of each new-born infant, the life he was destined to lead, or the death he was fated to die, which were boldly settled by astrological prediction. The Greeks,' says Herodotus, 'borrowed the science of astrology from the Egyptians, but that people have invented more prodigies than all the rest of mankind. They observe and note down every occurrence, as well as whatever follows it; and then carefully watching those of a similar nature, they predict the issue from analogy, being persuaded that it will be the same.' The inspection of the entrails of victims, the study of omens, and all those superstitious customs which the religions of antiquity so scrupulously observed, were deemed highly important among the Egyptians; and the means adopted for divining future events, or the success of any undertaking, were as varied and painful, as the derb é rummel and other trials of chance used by Oriental people at the present day. They even,' says Plutarch, look upon children as gifted with a kind of faculty of divination, and they are ever anxious to observe the accidental

prattle they talk during play, deducing from it presages of future events.' Oracles were also consulted, like the magicians of the present day, in cases of theft; and Amasis is reputed to have bestowed presents on those which he found capable of returning true answers, and remarkable for discrimination. They predicted future events, both relative to private occurrences and natural phenomena; for which purpose, Diodorus tells us, they took advantage of their skill in arithmetical calculations; this last being of the highest importance to them in the study of astrology; For the Egyptians most accurately observe the order and movement of the stars, preserving their remarks upon each for an incredible number of years; that study having been followed by them from the earliest times. They most carefully note the movements, revolutions, and positions of the planets, as well as the influences possessed by each upon the birth of animals, whether productive of good or evil. And they frequently foretell what is about to happen to mankind with the greatest accuracy, showing the failure and abundance of crops, or the epidemic diseases about to befal men or cattle; and earthquakes, deluges, the rising of comets, and all those phenomena, the knowledge of which appears impossible to vulgar comprehensions, they foresee by means of their long-continued observations. It is, indeed, supposed that the Chaldæans of Babylon, being an Egyptian colony, arrived at their celebrity in astrology in consequence of what they derived from the priests of Egypt."

In the later periods of Jewish history we meet with many persons among the Jews, who pretended to be magicians or sorcerers. This class of persons dealt in incantations and divinations, and boasted of a power, in consequence of their occult science, and by means of certain rites, to evoke the spirits of the dead from their gloomy abodes, and compel them to disclose information beyond the reach of the human powers. Josephus relates that in his time there were numerous sorcerers and deceivers, who, pretending to show wonders and prodigies, seduced great numbers of people after them into the wilderness. Of this description, probably, was the sorcerer Bar-Jesus, mentioned in Acts 13. 6-11. There were likewise others, such as Simon, (Acts 8. 9,) who, having some knowledge of natural philosophy and astrology, abused that knowledge, and deceived the common people by pretending to foretell future events from the motions and appearances of the planets and stars, and to cure certain diseases by repeating certain phrases. So prevalent was the practice of magic and sorcery among the Jews, that many of their elders or rabbins are said to have attained such a proficiency in these arts, as to surpass even those who made it a profession. The Talmud informs us that twenty-four of the school of Rabbi Judah were killed by sorcery; and eighty women sorceresses were hanged in one day by Simon Ben Shetah. So greatly did the practice of these arts prevail among them, that skill in them was required as a necessary qualification for a person to be chosen a member of their councils, whether that of seventy-one or those of twentythree; in order that he might be the better able to try and judge the accused, whether they were really guilty of sorcery or not.

Beside other appellations, the Jews termed magicians, Dubya baali shem, masters of the Name, that is, the Shem-hamphorash, or ineffable name of God, as the Jews call the name of Jehovah. The true pronunciation of this, it was considered, was unknown, and that by any one who discovered it, any wonders might be effected. The Jews assert that Our Saviour was enabled to perform his miracles by his having acquired a knowledge of this unutterable Name. Their story is

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that the name was found by David, engraven on a stone, when digging the foundations of the Temple, and that he deposited it in the sanctuary; and lest curious young men should learn this name, and bring devastation upon the world by the miracles it would enable them to perform, the wise men of the time made, by magical arts, two brazen lions, which they stationed before the entrance of the Holy of Holies, on each side; so that, if any one entered the sacred place, and learned the ineffable Name, the lions roared at him so fiercely when he came forth, that, in his fright, he entirely forgot it. But they say that Our Lord, by magical arts and incantations, entered the sanctuary undiscovered by the priests, saw the sacred Name, copied it on parchment, which, having made an incision in his body, he slipped under his skin. The roaring of the lions when he came out caused him to forget the name, but the parchment under his skin enabled him to recover it, and thenceforward to refresh his memory when needful; and by the power of this name it was that all his miracles were performed. Such is the account given in the Sepher Toldath Jeshu, or Book of the Generation of Jesus," a spurious narrative of Jewish fabrication, from which the Jews have for ages received their impressions concerning the life and character of Our Lord.

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In addition to the effects attributed to the Shemhamphorash, Josephus describes the Jews as working cures by invoking the name of Solomon, and states that the Essenes preserved the names of angels by which they expected to cure diseases and work miracles. The Talmud speaks of the mode by which Solomon obtained possession of a celebrated signet-ring, by which he governed the spirits, and relates the tale how by magic he built the Temple, and how for his sins he was cast out of his kingdom, and after three years was restored. This signet-ring, it is said, came down to him in a cloud, and having the ineffable Name engraved upon it, enabled the wearer to rule all spirits. Possessed of this talisman, Solomon summoned the spirits of good and evil, and commanded them to aid him in building the Temple; they told him that in order that the stones might be split without iron tools, it would be necessary for him to obtain the wonderful insect called Shamir, at the approach of which that which was desired would divide just as was required. "By this," said they, "Moses made the tunic and breast-plate." There was but one being who knew who this Shamir was, and this was Ashmedai, the prince of the devils. After a long search, Ashmedai was found, and Benaiah, who acted as provost-marshal, fell upon Ashmedai, as he had done upon Joab, and after great resistance bound him; the demon, however, was cunningly first intoxicated, and then brought bound to Solomon. When the fumes of the wine had evaporated, he informed Solomon that the Shamir was entrusted to the angel of the sea, and gave directions how it might be obtained. In this also Benaiah was successful; and now possessed of this insect, (which, to increase its importance, was fabled to have been created on the first Sabbath,) aided by the powers of light, and served, though reluctantly, by those of darkness, the zenith of Solomon's glory drew nigh; he built that sublime and stupendous Temple upon which the world gazed in wonder, and even Deity condescended to dwell visibly within it.

to Solomon the instrument of his supernatural power, than he changed his tone, and dilating himself to an immense magnitude swallowed the too late repentant Solomon. Spreading his broad wings, he flew two hundred leagues in a moment of time, and spat out the king in a distant and idolatrous country. He then took the signet and flung it into the sea, when it was swallowed by a fish. Before he left Solomon, he told him that these judgments had been inflicted upon him because he had broken three commandments, and had multiplied unto himself horses, wives, and treasure, which he had been forbidden as the king of Israel to do." The dénouement of the story is quite according to rule, and may be easily anticipated. Solomon catches the fish that had swallowed his ring, and again recovers his power and kingdom.

Josephus also says that the Jews had certain incantations which were believed to be effectual for the expulsion of devils, and which were greatly valued from being the supposed invention of Solomon. He mentions in particular one Eleazar, who made an exhibition of his art before Vespasian. He relieved those who were possessed of evil spirits; and this he did by drawing the devil forth by the nostrils of the possessed person. For this purpose he applied to his nose a ring, which had under it a root, the virtues of which had been discovered by Solomon, by which, and by repeating the name of Solomon, and reciting the incantations which that wise king had composed, the devil was obliged to leave the possessed person, who immediately fell to the ground. Josephus states they had also other forms of exorcism and modes of incantation, which they believed were employed by Solomon.

Lord Lindsay remarks, "Both psylli and magicians. seem to have been known among the Jews; 'the deaf adder that shutteth her ears' is proverbial, and the stone of imagination,' that is, 'certain smooth images, in which by art magic pictures and little faces were represented, declaring hidden things and stolen goods,' mentioned by Jeremy Taylor, on the authority I suppose of some Rabbinical comment on Leviticus, was evidently kindred sorcery to that practised in Egypt at the present day. These psylli or serpent-charmers, together with magicians, jugglers, and fortune-tellers, still abound in Egypt; the latter, though not a numerous class, are mostly gipsies, who practice their art by means of a number of shells and pieces of broken glass, which are thrown down, and as they chance to lie so the predictions are made."

The prevalence of magic among heathen nations is too well known to require any proofs. Pythagoras and other distinguished Greek philosophers took no small pains to attain the knowledge of this art; and the inhabitants of Ephesus in particular were renowned for their magical skill. And it was no small triumph of the Gospel, that many of the Christian converts of Ephesus, who had previously used "curious arts," (Ta Teρiepya, which word is employed by Greek writers to denote magical arts, incantations, &c.,) brought their books together and burnt them before all men. (Acts 19. 19.) So celebrated was the city of Ephesus for the magic art, that some particular forms of incantation derived their names from thence, and were called Epeoia ypaμμara, or Ephesian letters. These Ephesian characters appear to have been amulets inscribed with strange characters, which were carried about the body for the purposes of curing diseases, expelling demons, and preserving individuals from evils of different kinds. The "books" above-mentioned were such as taught the science, manner of formation, and use of these charms, which were believed to be capable of rendering all kinds

of service to their possessors. Suidas gravely states, that "When Milesius and Ephesius wrestled at the Olympic games, Milesius could not prevail, because his antagonist had the Ephesian letters bound to his heels; when this was discovered and the letters taken away, it is reported that Milesius threw him thirty times." Hesychius gives us a description of these potent spells: he says, "The Ephesian letters or characters were formerly six, but certain deceivers added others afterwards; and their names according to report were these: Askion, Kataskion, Lix, Tetrax, Damnameneus, and Aision. It is evident that Askion signifies Darkness; Kataskion, Light; Lix, the Earth; Tetrax, the Year; Damnameneus, the Sun; and Aision, Truth. These are holy and sacred things." The same statement may be seen in Clemens Alexandrinus, where he attempts to give the etymology of these different terms. The Abraxas of the Basilidians in the second century, followers of Simon Magus, were formed on the basis of the Ephesian letters. See GNOSTICS; SIMON MAGUS.

The Jews and heathens, in their dislike of Christianity, took every opportunity of representing its professors as deserving of hatred or contempt, and hence, among the various terms of reproach and ridicule, they derided them as magicians or sorcerers; in accordance with this is the impious charge, brought by Celsus and others against Our blessed Lord, that he practised magic, which they supposed him to have studied in Egypt. Augustine says that it was generally believed among the heathen, that Our Saviour wrote some books about magical arts, which he delivered to St. Peter and St. Paul for the use of his disciples. See EXORCISM.

MAGISTRATE. Having in the article JEWS given some particulars respecting the Hebrew magistrates in the earlier periods of Jewish history, we proceed to notice here some of the distinctions which obtained under the monarchy.

Judges, genealogists, the heads of families or clans, and those who, from the relation they sustained to the common class of people, may be called the princes of the tribes, retained their authority after as well as before the introduction of a monarchical form of government, and acted the part of a legislative assembly to the respective cities in or near which they resided. (1Kings 12. 1-24; 1Chron. 23. 4; 26. 29.) The headship of the tribes. and families was hereditary, though probably subject to the royal approbation, but the judges and genealogists were appointed by the king. Besides these, we read of certain great officers, as certain great officers, as "the royal counsellors," (1Kings 12. 6-12; 1Chron. 27, 32; Isai. 3. 3,) among whom the prophets were included by pious kings, (2Sam. 7. 2; 1Kings 22. 7,8; 2Kings 19. 2-20;) while others of a different character imitated the example of heathen princes and called in to their aid soothsayers and false prophets. (1Kings 18. 22; 22. 6; Dan. 1. 20.) The secretary or scribe" (2Sam. 8. 16; 20. 24; 1Kings 4. 3,) committed to writing not only the edicts and sayings of the king, but everything of a public nature that related to the kingdom; and it was likewise his business to present to the king in writing an account of the state of affairs. The high-priest may be also reckoned among those who had access to the king in the character of counsellors. (2Sam. 8. 17; 1Chron. 18. 16.)

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During the Captivity and after that period the Hebrews continued among them that class of officers denominated heads of families, and perhaps likewise the princes of the tribes, who under the direction of the royal governors ruled their respective tribes. (Ezra 1.5; 4.3,5; Nehem. 2. 16; 6. 17,18; Ezek. 14. 1.) But it is most