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MARRIAGE.

to fill up their stations in the procession; some of them had lost their lights, and were unprepared; but it was then too late to seek them, and the cavalcade moved forward to the house of the bride, at which place the company entered a large and splendidly illuminated area, before the house, covered with an awning, where a great multitude of friends, dressed in their best apparel, were seated upon mats. The bridegroom was carried in the arms of a friend and placed on a superb seat in the midst of the company, where he sat a short time, and then went into the house, the door of which was immediately shut, and guarded by sepoys. I and others expostulated with the doorkeepers, but in vain. Never was I so struck with Our Lord's beautiful parable, as at this moment: And the door was shut!"

Roberts informs us, “An Eastern wedding is always celebrated in the night; for though the fortunate hour for performing some parts of the ceremony may be in the day, yet the festivities of the scene will not take place till night. When the bridegroom goes forth to the house of the bride, or when he returns to his own habitation, or to that of his father, he is always accompanied by numerous friends and dependants, who carry lamps and torches. When he approaches either house, the inmates rush out to meet him, and greet him with their best wishes and congratulations."

At Kamenets Podolskoi, which has a large Jewish population, Dr. Henderson relates, "We were stunned by the noise of a procession led on by a band of musicians, playing on tambourines and cymbals, which passed our windows. On inquiry, we learned that it consisted of a Jewish bridegroom, accompanied by his young friends, proceeding to the house of the bride's father, in order to convey her home to her future residence. In a short time they returned with such a profusion of lights as quite illuminated the street. The bride, deeply veiled, was led along in triumph, accompanied by her virgins, each with a candle in her hand, who, with the young men, sang and danced before her and the bridegroom. The scene presented us with an ocular illustration of the important parable recorded in the 25th chapter of the Gospel of St. Matthew; and we were particularly reminded of the appropriate nature of the injunction which Our Saviour gives to watch and be ready; for the reprocession must have commenced immediately on the arrival of the bridegroom."

Having arrived at the place where the nuptials were to be celebrated, the men began to indulge themselves in feasting and conviviality; while the women, who were assembled in an apartment appropriated to themselves, were equally prompt in partaking of the feast, and in the exhibition of their gaiety and cheerfulness. At length the nuptial blessing, a numerous offspring, was implored upon the parties concerned. (Gen. 24. 60; Ruth 4. 11,12.) At a later period, there were probably some additional ceremonies, for we read in Tobit 7. 15, that the father took the right hand of his beautiful daughter, and placed it in the right hand of the young Tobias, before he uttered his solemn and impressive blessing. The spouse, who to this time had been veiled from head to foot, was at last led into the bed-chamber, called hhaphah.

The ceremonies we have described took place only in case of the marriage of a wife properly so called. Concubines (some of whom had previously acted in the capacity of maid-servants) were sometimes in the earlier ages permanently associated by mutual consent with individuals of the other sex; but although this connexion was in fact a marriage, and a legitimate one, it was not, nevertheless, celebrated and confirmed by the ceremonies above related. The concubine thus associated, had a

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right to claim the privileges of a wife; and it was no longer in the power of her husband to dispose of her by public sale, even if she had previously been his slave. (Deut. 21. 10-14.) See CONCUBINE.

From the parable in which a great king is represented as making a most magnificent entertainment at the marriage of his son, we learn that all the guests who were honoured with an invitation were expected to be dressed in a manner suitable to the splendour of such an occasion, and as a token of respect to the new-married couple; and that, after the procession in the evening from the bride's house was concluded, the guests, before they were admitted into the hall where the entertainment was served up, were taken into an apartment and viewed, that it might be known if any stranger had intruded, or if any of the company were apparelled in raiment unsuitable to the solemnity they were going to celebrate; and such, if found, were expelled the house with every mark of ignominy and disgrace. From the knowledge of this custom, the following passage receives much illustration. When the king came in to see the guests, he discovered among them a person who had not on a wedding garment. He called him and said, "Friend, how camest thou in hither, not having a wedding garment?" and he was speechless; he had no apology to offer for this disrespectful neglect.

At nuptial and other feasts, it was usual to appoint a person to superintend the preparations, to pass around among the guests to see that they wanted nothing, and to give the necessary orders to the servants. Ordinarily he was not one of the guests, and did not recline with them; or at least he did not take his place among them until he had performed all that was required of him. This officer is, by St. John 2. 8,9, termed Architriclinus, and Hegumenos by the author of the Book of Ecclesiasticus; as the latter lived about the year 190 B.C., and while the Jews had intercourse with the Greeks, especially in Egypt, it is most probable that the custom of choosing a governor of the feast passed from the Greeks to the Jews. See ARCHITRICLINUS.

At a marriage feast, to which Mr. Buckingham was invited, he relates, that when the master of the feast came, he was "seated as the stranger-guest immediately beside him; and on the ejaculation of 'B'Ism Allah' being uttered, he dipped his fingers in the same dish, and had the choicest bits placed before him by his own hands, as a mark of his being considered a friend or favourite; for this is the highest honour that can be shown to any one at an Eastern feast.

"Two interesting passages of Scripture derive illustration from this trait of Eastern manners. The first is that in which the Saviour says, 'When thou art bidden of any man to a wedding, sit not down in the highest room, (that is, place or station,) lest a more honourable man than thou be bidden of him: and he that bade thee and him, come and say to thee, Give this man place; and thou begin with shame to take the lowest room. But when thou art bidden, go and sit down in the lowest room; that when he that bade thee cometh, he may say unto thee, Friend, go up higher; then shalt thou have worship in the presence of them that sit at meat with thee.' (Luke 14. 8-10.) The other passage is that in which, at the celebration of the passover, Jesus says, (Matt. 26. 23,) 'He that dippeth his hand with me in the dish, the same shall betray me.' As there are but very few, and these always the dearest friends, or most honoured guests, who are seated sufficiently near to the master of the feast to dip their hands in the same dish with him, (probably not more than three or four out of the twelve disciples at the last supper enjoyed this privilege,) the baseness of the treachery is much increased,

when one of those few becomes a betrayer; and in this light the conduct of Judas was, no doubt, meant to be depicted by this pregnant expression."

A modern writer states that "the expenses of Hindoo marriages are occasionally so enormous, that princes have been known to impoverish their states by the profusion and magnificence displayed at the wedding of their children. It often happens that a parent will expend his whole fortune upon a marriage entertainment, and pass the rest of his days in the most pitiable destitution. The nuptial ceremonies continue many days. On the third day the astrologer consults the zodiac, and pointing out to the married party a small star in the constellation of Ursa Major, near the tail, directs them to offer their devotions to it, declaring it to be Arundhati, wife of one of the seven rishis, or penitents. The wedding-dinner is invariably furnished with an immense number of guests, and if the entertainers be rich, is always extremely magnificent. Upon this occasion only, the bride sits down to partake with her husband of the luxuries provided; indeed, both eat out of the same plates. This, however, is the only time in her life that the wife is allowed such a privilege; henceforward she never sits down to a meal with her husband. Even at the nuptial feast, she eats what he leaves, unless

she be too much of an infant to be sensible of the honour to which she has been exalted. Upon the last days of the festival, the bridegroom offers the sacrifice of the Homan, the bride throwing parched, instead of boiled rice into the fire. This is the only instance in which a woman takes part in that sacrifice, considered by the Hindoos the most sacred of all except that of the Yajna. These ceremonies being concluded, a procession is made through the streets of the town or village. It commonly takes place at night, the streets being brilliantly illuminated with innumerable torches, which gleam through the darkness with a dazzling but unnatural glare. The new-married pair are seated in the same palankeen, facing each other. They are magnificently arrayed in brocaded stuffs, and adorned with jewels presented to them by the fathers of each, and if their fathers are unable to do this, the gems are borrowed for the occasion. Before the palankeen marches a band of musicians, who drown every other sound in the braying of horns, the clamour of drums, pipes, and cymbals. As the procession moves onward, the friends and relatives of the bride and bridegroom come out of their houses to express their congratulations as they pass, offering them various presents, for which, however, they expect a more than adequate return."

The following account of the marriage ceremonies of the early Christians is extracted from Riddle's Manual of Christian Antiquities:

In early ecclesiastical writers we find more frequent reference to the Roman laws and institutions respecting marriage, than to those of the Mosaic dispensation; nor was it until the sixth or seventh century that the latter appear to have received any especial attention in the Christian Church. By the Roman laws, it should be remembered, polygamy was strictly forbidden; and so well was the spirit of these laws maintained, that when Julius Cæsar endeavoured to establish the prohibited practice, his proposal met with universal opposition. An edict of the Christian emperor, Valentinian I., declared it lawful for a man to have two wives at once; but this edict, which was intended to screen the emperor's own misconduct, was not admitted into the body of the laws, nor did it produce any permanent effect. The early Christians borrowed from the Romans some of their marriage ceremonies, but Tertullian, Ambrose, and others, protest against the adoption of heathen customs in this

respect, not absolutely and entirely, but so far as they were observed to the neglect of Christian or religious consecration.

The state always possessed and claimed the power of enacting the laws of marriage; the church at the same time possessing a subordinate or concurrent jurisdiction. In the Middle Ages, the church possessed a preponderating power in these matters; but even during that period a claim to exclusive ecclesiastical jurisdiction was by no means universally established or allowed. After the lapse of several centuries from the institution of Christianity, the Mosaic prohibitions and other regulations respecting marriage were adopted, with certain modifica tions, in the church. The canonists are very careful in their enumeration of the degrees of consanguinity or affinity, within which it became unlawful to contract marriage. They enumerate thirteen such cases, whereas the number of those which the Jewish lawgiver recounts is seventeen or nineteen; an instance of deviation from the original law which was deemed necessary.

Mixed marriages, marriages between Jews and Gentiles, were strictly prohibited by the Mosaic law. The New Testament, if it be thought to contain no positive prohibition of the intermarriage of Christians and heathens, yet, to say the least, strongly represents such a proceeding as inconsistent with a Christian profession, (1Cor. 7. 39; 2Cor. 6. 14,) and the early Fathers denounce the practice as dangerous and even criminal. It was afterwards positively prohibited by the decrees of councils and the laws of the empire. These prohibitions extended to the marriage of Christians with Jews, Pagans, Mohammedans, and certain heretics, namely, those whose baptism was not admitted as valid by the church. The first interdiction of marriage with heretics on record, is one which was made about the middle of the fourth century. With respect to divorce, the primitive church adhered to the rules laid down by Our Lord and his Apostles. (Mark 10. 2,12; Luke 16. 18; Matt. 5. 31,32; 19. 2-10; 1Cor. 7. 10,11.) We do not find any office or form for the solemnization of matrimony among the ancient Liturgies; probably no such form was prescribed until the eighth or ninth century, when the celebration of marriage by the church was recognised and sanctioned by the state.

There are many incidental allusions to particular marriage rites and ceremonies in the works of Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Augustine, Jerome, Basil, and Chrysostom, which were observed in their time, but not any entire or general account of them. The first writer who attempts any such description is Isidorus Hispalensis, in the former part of the seventh century, who undertakes to enumerate those marriage ceremonies which the church had recognised as innocent and convenient. We possess also an official account of the cere monies used in the Roman church, A.D. 860, from the pen of Pope Nicholas the First. When persons, against whom there lay no lawful impediment, were disposed to join in matrimony with each other, they were obliged to go through certain preliminaries appointed by custom or law, before they could ordinarily complete the marriage. These went by the general name of sponsalia, espousals, or betrothing; and they consisted chiefly in a mutual contract or agreement between the parties concerning their future marriage, to be performed within a certain limited time; which contract was confirmed by certain gifts or donations, called Arrhæ et Arrhabones, the earnest of marriage; as also by a ring, a kiss, a dowry, a writing, or instrument of dowry, with a sufficient number of witnesses to attest it. Together with these espousal gifts, or as a part of them, it was usual for the man to give the woman a ring, as a further token and

MARRIAGE.

testimony of the contract. This was an innocent ceremony used by the Romans before the time of Christianity, and in some measure admitted by the Jews, whence it was adopted among the Christian rites of espousal. But it does not appear that the ring was originally used in the solemnity of marriage itself. Another ceremony used in espousals, sometimes, was a solemn kiss, which the man gave to the woman, in confirmation of the contract; which was an ancient rite used by the heathen, together with joining of hands in their espousals. These ceremonies seem to have been adopted by Christians, with such other customs, into their espousals, who never rejected any innocent rites because they had been used by heathens, except such as naturally tended to defile them with some unavoidable stain of idolatry or superstition. To make the business of espousals not only the more solemn, but also the more firm and secure, it was usual to transact the whole affair before chosen witnesses, the friends of each party. Custom appears to have determined the number of witnesses to ten. It seems also that a ministerial benediction was sometimes used in espousals, as well as in marriage. When the contract of future marriage was thus settled by espousals, it was not lawful for either party to join in marriage with any other, under very severe penalties, (which both the civil and ecclesiastical law inflicted,) unless the time of marriage was fraudulently protracted beyond two years, which was the period limited for the duration of espousals. But the laws relating to this matter included certain necessary provisions and restrictions. At the time of marriage, the contracting parties having been presented to the priest, by their parents or by the paranymphi, or bridemen, and the ceremony of joining hands, and of untying the woman's hair, of covering the bride with a veil, and of spreading the vitta nuptialis over both, having taken place, and the married persons being now ready to depart, it was usual to crown them both with crowns or garlands, the symbols of victory. This was indeed an old ceremony, used in heathen marriages, and it is still retained in the Greek church. With respect to the convivial entertainments and other festivities which usually attended the celebration of a marriage, we may observe that it was the object of the church not to abolish them, but to restrain them within the bounds of decency and good order. For the old Roman custom of throwing about nuts at the time of marriage, the early Christians appear to have substituted the better practice of distributing alms to children and

the poor.
Marriage was dissolved among the Jews by divorce as
well as by death. Our Saviour tells us that "Moses
suffered this because of the hardness of their heart, but
from the beginning it was not so," (Matt. 19. 8;) mean-
ing that they were accustomed to this abuse, and to
prevent greater evils, such as murders, adulteries, &c.,
he permitted it: whence it should seem to have been in
use before the law; and we see that Abraham dismissed
Hagar at the request of Sarah. It appears that Sam-
son's father-in-law understood that his daughter had
been divorced, since he gave her to another. (Judges
15. 2.) The Levite's wife, who was dishonoured at Gi-
beah, had forsaken her husband, and never would have
returned, if he had not gone in pursuit of her. (Judges
19. 2,3.) Solomon speaks of a libertine woman, who
had forsaken her husband, the director of her youth, and
by doing so, contrary to her nuptial vows, had forgotten
the covenant of her God. (Prov. 2. 17.) See BILL OF
DIVORCEMENT; DIVORCE.

The form of those divorces among the modern Jews which are termed Ghet, must be written by one of their notaries, with the concurrence of three Rabbins; and

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there are several rules to be observed in regard to the manner in which it is to be drawn up. It must be written on ruled vellum, and contain exactly twelve lines and no more. It must likewise be written expressly for a bill of divorce, and must also make mention of the place of residence of both man and wife. It is also required that the notary, the Rabbins, and the witnesses, shall not be related either to the husband, the wife, or each other. The substance of the bill of divorcement is this: Such a day of the week, month, year, and place, (all which must be in a particular manner specified,) "I, A. B., the son of C. D., and whose place of abode in this present day is in the city of L., &c., do voluntarily divorce thee, and put thee away, and make thee free. Thee, C. D., the daughter of B. L., whose place of residence is this day in the city of L., &c., who hast hitherto been my wife; and behold by this act thou art divorced, put away, and made free. And Ldo hereby permit thee to marry whom thou pleasest; and no man shall have power to hinder thee from this day forward. And, behold thou art free to any man; and this instrument shall be unto thee a bill of divorcement, putting away, and freedom, according to the law of Moses and Israel." The form being drawn up, the Rabbi interrogates the husband in order to ascertain whether he does this voluntarily. If such be the fact, then there must be ten witnesses present at the reading and signing, besides the two who subscribe to the instrument.

The husband must deliver the Ghet into the woman's hand, and as he delivers it, must express himself in the following manner: "Behold this is thy bill of divorcement, and thou art herewith divorced from me, and art free to any other man." The Rabbi then lays an injunction on the woman not to marry in less than ninety days, lest she should be with child.

It often happens that the husband is in another country, but he notwithstanding can send his wife a bill of divorcement by a messenger, who must be specially appointed, and must be present to witness the husband's order to the notary to write the bill; he must also be present at the writing and signing thereof; after which, he receives the bill from the husband in the presence of two subscribing witnesses, the husband declaring as follows: "Take this bill of divorcement, and deliver it to my wife, in any place where thou canst find her, and thy hand shall be as mine; thy mouth as mine; thy act as my act; and thy delivery as my delivery; and I authorize and empower thee, even to appoint another messenger, if needful, in order that the divorcement may reach her hands, either from thy hands, or from the hands of thy messenger; she is divorced from me, and is free to any other man." When the messenger delivers the divorcement, he must do it in the presence of two witnesses, and must deliver. it himself in the following manner: "Behold this is thy bill of divorcement which thy husband hath sent unto thee, and thou art herewith divorced from him; and art free to any other man; and this bill of divorcement was written and signed in my presence." The Jews sometimes marry their children very young, and then they must stay till they are of a proper age before the marriage can be celebrated. Hence when a girl, under ten years of age, happens to marry a man she does not like, she is entitled to a divorce when she comes to be twelve years and a day old, which is the time when women are declared of age. She has only to say that she will not have such a man; this she does before two witnesses, who set down her declaration in writing, and deliver unto her what is called a divorcement of dislike; she is then at liberty to marry whom she pleases. A modern Jewish writer, from whom we shall borrow an account of the marriage ceremonies of his people at the present

day, says in reference to the custom of marrying children at such a tender age: "This has been a common practice in the kingdom of Poland; but, at the present time, it is discontinued by order of the legislature. When the husband and wife are thus divorced by mutual consent, (except for a woman committing adultery, which to the credit of their sex is a very rare occurrence,) they may afterwards, if they think proper, be reunited again, and this has not unfrequently been the

case.

"So particular are the Jews on this point that if the least suspicion be entertained of a woman being unchaste, and it can be proved, the husband is compelled to be divorced, as the law forbids the husband to cover her fault by keeping her. A woman divorced under these circumstances, is at liberty to marry any man she pleases except the individual with whom she committed adultery. Divorcement of this sort must be plainly proved before it can take place.

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Every Jew is obliged to enter into the marriage state, and the proper time as allowed by the Rabbins is the age of eighteen. A man that lives single until he is twenty is looked upon as profligate, unless he makes it appear that he cannot find a person that suits the disposition of his mind. It is likewise the duty of a female to enter into the marriage state at the same age. If a young man can find a woman according to his mind, and they both agree on this point, they make no scruple to inform their parents, or near relations, of the circumstance. If they have no parents, they inform their nearest relations of their mutual intentions. Should the parents or relations find it a suitable connexion, they will readily agree; and if it happens otherwise, or if they find it to be altogether an unequal yoke, then they will not give their consent. Sometimes it may happen that love has taken a deep root on both sides. If so, they then break through the rule in this way: a young man and young woman can go to any Jew's house of their acquaintance, and if they find two males under the same roof, who are known to be devout men in their religion, the young man will adopt the following plan, (which is as well understood by the young woman.) He will endeavour to get into conversation, and when an opportunity offers, the young man will take a ring, and put it on the young woman's forefinger of her right hand, and will utter certain words in Hebrew to this effect: With this ring I wed thee.' This, although it may seem strange, is a lawful marriage to all intents and purposes; but still it is reckoned disgraceful. It seldom happens, after such a marriage, but the friends mutually agree to have it celebrated in public. It is customary for the bride and bridegroom to be betrothed, sometimes six months, or even a year before marriage, according to circumstances, as may be agreed upon by the parties; during which time the bridegroom visits his bride, but without any intimate intercourse. Indeed it is almost reckoned unchaste among them for a young man and young woman to walk together in public without being

betrothed.

"The following is the manner of the betrothing. According to appointment, both parties invite their nearest relations, and the heads of the synagogue. There is a scribe present who draws up an agreement between the bride and bridegroom. A day is fixed when they shall be joined in wedlock; and on this bond it is stipulated by a certain fine, sometimes from fifty to five hundred pounds penalty, that if the bridegroom forsakes the bride, or the bride the bridegroom, unless by the consent of both parties, such penalty will be inflicted. At the time of these betrothings there is great feasting and rejoicing, and generally the day after the betroth

ment, the bride and bridegroom are busily engaged in acquainting all their friends and relations of the happy event that has taken place. It is lawful for first cousins to marry. An uncle may also marry his niece; but an aunt must not marry her nephew: the reason is obvious, that the law of nature must not be reversed; for when the uncle marries his niece, the same person remains at the head who was so before; but when the nephew marries his aunt, he becomes, as it were, her head, and she must pay homage to him, by which the law of nature is reversed. is reversed. On the day appointed for the celebration of the nuptials, the bride and bridegroom are conducted to the place appointed for the nuptial ceremony; the bridegroom by the men, and the bride by the women. There are generally assembled most of their relations and acquaintance, for they usually invite a great many, as they are obliged to have at least ten men present; otherwise the marriage is null and void. When all the company are assembled, including the priest and the reader of the synagogue, the ceremony is performed in the following manner. A velvet canopy is brought into the room, supported by four long poles, under which the bride and bridegroom are led and placed opposite to each other. The bridegroom is supported by two friends, one under each arm, and the bride, having her face covered by a veil, in token of female modesty, by two women, who are usually the parents of the bride and bridegroom, if living, otherwise the nearest kindred. The priest then takes a glass of wine in his hand, and says as follows:

"Blessed art thou, O Lord, Our God, king of the universe, the creator of the fruit of the vine. Blessed art thou, O Lord, Our God, king of the universe, who hath sanctified us with his commandments, and hath forbid us fornication, and hath prohibited unto us the betrothed, but hath allowed unto us those that are married by means of the canopy and wedding-ring. Blessed art thou, O Lord, sanctifier of his people Israel, by the means of the canopy and wedlock.

"Blessed art thou, O Lord, Our God, king of the universe, who hast created joy and gladness, bridegroom and bride, delight and song, pleasure and sympathy, love and brotherhood, peace and friendship. Speedily, O Lord, Our God, let there be heard in the cities of Judah, and in the streets of Jerusalem, the voice of joy, and the voice of gladness; the voice of the bridegroom and the voice of the bride; the voice of merriment of the bridegrooms from out of their canopies, and youths from their musical feasts. Blessed art thou, O Lord, the rejoicer of the bridegroom with the bride.'

"Then the bridegroom and bride drink of the wine; after which the bridegroom takes the ring and puts it on the bride's finger, in the presence of all who stand round the canopy, and says, 'Behold thou art betrothed unto me with this ring, according to the rites of Moses and Israel.' Then the instrument of the marriage-contract is read, which specifies that the bridegroom, A. B., doth agree to take the bride, C. D., as his lawful wife, according to the law of Moses and Israel; and that he will keep, maintain, honour, and cherish her according to the manner of all the Jews, who honour, keep, maintain, and cherish their wives, and keep her in clothing decently, according to the manner and custom of the world. It likewise specifies what sum he settles upon her in case of his death; and he therein obliges his heirs, executors, administrators, &c., to pay the same to her out of the first produce of his effects. The reader then drinks another glass of wine, and, after a prayer, the bride and bridegroom drink of the wine. The empty glass is then laid upon the ground, and the bridegroom stamps on and breaks it; the intent and meaning

MARRIAGE

of which ceremony is, to remind them of death, to whose power frail mortals must sooner or later yield; and therefore to induce them to lead such a life as not to be terrified at the approach of death. This being concluded, all present cry out, Mosol tov,' May it turn out happily; which ends the ceremony. It is not uncommon to see congregated at weddings from three to four hundred individuals of both sexes, who come gaily attired. These entertainments are held generally in places of public resort, particularly in London, such as the London Tavern, &c., &c., where a very sumptuous dinner is provided. A month before the wedding-day, it is usual for the bride and bridegroom, and their relations, to send circulars to their numerous acquaintances; something in this form: 'Mr. Aaron Levi and Rebecca Josephs present their compliments to, and beg to inform them that they are to be joined in wedlock -; their company is requested to the ceremonies of their nuptials, and likewise to dinner, tea, and ball, and the evening following likewise to tea and ball. N.B. The ceremony of nuptials will take place precisely at two o'clock in the day, at according to appointment.'

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"For a stranger to behold a Jew's wedding, would strike him with wonder, particularly during the time of the ceremony of the nuptials. What with the solemn scene, and the band of music playing solemn Jewish melody, and the splendid appearance of the company, I should not be surprised that many would say, As rich as Jews.' It must be understood that a beholder could not tell if the parties so married were rich or poor, as none come unless they give a present, either of money or plate, according to each one's circumstances. generally calculated that the presents so received will cover the expenses, which are usually very considerable."

MARROW, moach, (Job 21. 24,) a soft oleaginous substance contained in the hollow of the bones of animals. The term is used figuratively for the delicate and most satisfying provisions of the Gospel, (Isai. 25. 6,) and likewise in the New Testament, for the most secret thoughts of the heart. (Heb. 4. 12.)

MARS' HILL. See AREOPAGUS; ATHENS.

MARSH, bots, a swamp or marsh. The prophet Ezekiel, in his vision of the holy waters, says, "But the miry places thereof, and the marishes thereof, shall not be healed: they shall be given to salt." (47. 11.) It is supposed that the "valley of salt" in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea is here referred to. This plain or valley has been traversed and described by Captains Irby and Mangles. "We entered," say they, "the great plain at the end of the Dead Sea; for about a quarter of an hour we had a few bushes, and afterwards found the soil sandy and perfectly barren. On our right we had a continued hill of sandy soil, running in a south-east and north-west direction towards the middle of the plain." On proceeding across the plain, they had still the same sand-hill on their right.

"We found, exclusive of the saline appearance left by the retiring of the waters, several large fragments of clear rock salt lying on the ground, and on examining the hill, we found it composed partly of salt and partly of hardened sand. In many instances the salt was hanging from cliffs in clear perpendicular points, like icicles; and we observed numerous strata of that material of considerable thickness, having very little sand mixed with it. Strabo mentions that, to the southward of the Dead Sea, there are towns and cities built entirely of salt; and although such an account

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seems strange, yet, when we contemplated the scene before us, it did not seem very improbable. The torrents during the rainy season had brought down immense masses of salt; and we observed that the strata were generally in perpendicular lines." It seems that the plain itself, which, properly speaking, is part of the bed of the Dead Sea, becomes in part a marsh when the water is high during the wet season, but when that is over, is soon dried by the effects of evaporation. The travellers do not speak of any saline incrustation or impregnation in the barren flats thus formed; but such must be the case, not only from the strongly saline character of the evaporated water and the rocks of salt already referred to, but from the fact that, in a subsequent visit to the part of the valley east of the southern bay, the remarkably saline character of the dried soil is particularly mentioned. See DEAD SEA.

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"It would be painful and useless," says the Rev. W. Pridden, in his interesting work entitled The Early Christians, "to enter at large into the various cruelties to which, in those days, almost every true Christian was likely, at some part or other of his life, to be exposed; to be beaten with whips loaded with leaden balls; to be nailed to a cross, and there left, as it might happen, to pine, to bleed, or starve to death; to be put upon the rack, and have their joints forced out of place by the strength of screws; to be fastened to a wheel (sometimes set with iron spikes) and have their naked bodies torn as they were whirled round by its rapid motion; to be burned alive by a slow fire; to be thrown to wild beasts; to be sent, after being deprived of an eye or a foot, to the mines to labour in the midst of cold, and filth, and starvation; these were the common penalties for being a Christian." . . . . . "But grievous as were the sufferings of the soldiers of Christ during their lives, these were not enough to satisfy the hatred of their destroyers, who, feeling themselves baffled and set at nought by the meekness, patience, and unconquerable fortitude of those Christian heroes, did all that was in their power to show their spite against them, even after they had deprived them of life. What fierceness, what savageness, what madness to refuse light to the living, and earth to the dead!' exclaimed a Christian author of those times. And to their refusal of a decent burial the heathens sometimes added the most unfeeling mockery of the dead. For example, we read of the bones of certain

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