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crowd of Christian men from sea to sea through the nations, huddled together, to the shame of us all in the sight of the world,-if in earnest we knew any shame or even would rightly 5 understand. And all the misery that we continually suffer we repay with honor to them that shame us. We pay gelds to them continually, and they abuse us daily. They harry, they burn, they spoil and plunder, and carry off to the ships; and lo, what else in these troubles is clear and manifest but God's wrath towards this people?

god-children too many have been slain through-
out this people, besides others all too many,
who, without fault, have been destroyed.
Too many holy places, far and wide, have
perished, because certain men were lodged
there, as they would not have been, if we had
wished to know reverence for God's peace.
Christian folk too many have been sold all the
while out of this land. All this is loathsome
to God, let him believe it who will. . . . Also 10
we know full well whence hath come the evil
that a father sell his son for a price, and the son
his mother, and one brother the other, into the
power of strangers outside this nation. All

No wonder misfortune is upon us, for we know full well that now for many years men

these are mickle and terrible deeds, as he may 15 have seldom recked what they wrought in word

understand who will; and there are yet greater and more manifold that afflict this people. Many are forsworn and greatly purjured; pledges are broken again and again; and it is

or deed; but this nation hath become, as it may appear, very sinful, through manifold sins and misdeeds, through murder and evil, through greed and covetousness, rapine and robbery,

clear in this land that God's wrath sits heavily 20 treachery and heathen vices, through treason upon us,-let him who can, understand.

and deceit, through law-breaking and sedition, through attacks on kinsmen, through manslaughter and violation of religious vows, through adultery and incest and divers forni

Lo, how can greater shame come upon men through God's wrath than cometh upon us, for our own deserts? Though a thrall escape from his lord and leave Christendom to become a 25 cations. Also, as we said before, through oathViking, and it come about afterward that thane and thrall come together in battle, if the thrall foully slay the thane, the thane for all his relations must lie without wer-geld, and if the thane foully kill the thrall whom he 30 Also here in the land are reprobate apostates

formerly owned, he must pay the wer-geld of a
thane. Full evil laws and shameful tribute
are, through God's wrath, common to us, as he
who can may understand; and many mis-
fortunes beset this people. This long time 35
nothing hath prospered within or without, but
harrying and hatred have been continual on
every side. The English have now long been
without victory, and too greatly dismayed,
through God's anger; and the ship-men' have 40
become so strong, with God's consent, that in
battle one of them will often put to flight ten of
us, sometimes less, sometimes more, all because
of our sins. . . . Often a thrall bindeth fast the
thane who was formerly his lord, and maketh of 45
him a thrall, through God's anger. Alas for
the misery, alas for the shame in the eyes of the
world, that Englishmen now suffer, all by God's
wrath! Often two or three seamen will drive a

breaking and pledge-breaking, and through divers falsehoods, more than should be are ruined and forsworn. Breaches of the peace and of fasting are wrought again and again.

and hostile persecutors of the Church, and cruel tyrants, all too many; despisers of divine law and Christian customs; and everywhere in the nation foolish mockers, most often of those things commanded by God's ministers, and very often of those things that belong of right to God's law. Therefore hath now come about the wide-spread evil custom that men are more ashamed of good deeds than of misdeeds, for men too often deride good deeds, and all too much revile the pious, and blame and greet with contumely those who love right and have in any measure the fear of God. Because men despise all that they ought to praise and continually loathe what they should love, all too many are brought to evil thoughts and deeds, so that they are not ashamed though they sin greatly and work in all things against God himself; but because of idle calumnies they are 50 ashamed to better their misdeeds, as books teach,-like those fools who for their pride will not save themselves before that time when they cannot though they would. . .

The thane was of the higher rank, and the thrall of the lowest rank in old English society. Wer-geld, or Man-price, was the sum at which a man's life was valued according to law, the amount varying for the different ranks of society. If one murdered another, the murderer could atone for his crime by paying wer-geld to the kinsmen of the one slain. Wulfstan's complaint is that the law pertaining to wer-gelds was no longer ad- 55 ministered with justice, and that in the case described, the thane who should kill his escaped thrall, or slave, would have to pay the same wer-geld as if he had killed a thane, and this in spite of the fact that the thrall had joined the enemy.

The Danes, or Vikings.

An historian there was in the time of the Britons, Gildas by name, who wrote of their misdeeds, how by their sins they so greatly

8 Payments of money to buy off the Danes. A Romanized Briton who, about 547, wrote a history of Britain from Roman times to his own day.

us do as we have need to do, turn to the right and in some measure shun and forsake unrighteousness, and eagerly better what we have heretofore broken. Let us seek Christ on our 5knees and often call upon Him with trembling heart and earn His mercy. Let us love God and fulfill God's laws, and perform eagerly what we promised when we received baptism, or those promised who at baptism spoke for

angered God that He very soon let the army of the English win their land and entirely destroyed the flower of the Britons. This, he said, came about because the clergy broke their vows, and laymen the law, because of plundering by the rich, extortion, evil laws of princes, false judgments; because of the sloth and ignorance of bishops, and the wicked cowardice of God's ministers, who all too often were silent concerning the truth, and mumbled within 10 us. Let us rightly order words and works, and

their jaws when they should have called out. Through foul wantonness of the folk, through gluttony and manifold sins, they ruined their land, and themselves perished.

willingly cleanse our inner thoughts, carefully keep oath and pledge, and without weakness have some faith amongst us. Let us often consider the great judgment we shall all come

But let us do, as is needful for us,-take 15 to, and eagerly save ourselves from the raging warning by such. Sooth is it that I say, worse deeds we know have been among the English than we have heard of anywhere among the Britons, and therefore have we great need to reflect and to reconcile ourselves to God. Let 20

fire of hell's torment, and earn for us the glory and the gladness that God hath prepared for those who work His will in the world. May God help us. Amen.

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HOW LAYAMON WROTE HIS BOOK (From the Brut,1 c. 1205)

In the land lived a priest, who was Layamon called,

He was Leovenath's son; Lord to him be gracious,

1 This selection is taken from the opening of the Poema Morale, or Moral Ode; a poem of about 400 lines. It may have been written as early as the reign of Henry I. (1100-1135). 2 Counsel, wisdom.

1 The Brut is a poem of about 30,000 lines. It is on

He abided at Arnley, at the great Church there Upon Severn's side, (it seemed to him good

there)

Hard by to Radestone, where he read bookės. 5
It came in his mind, and he made it his
purpose,
To tell of the English, the triumphs of old;
What names the men had, what lands they were
come from;

What folk English-land first of all owned
After the deluge that down from the Lord

came

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Which quelled all men that quick here it foundė,

Except Noah and Shem, Japhet and Ham, And their four wives who were in the ark with them.

So 'gan Layamon wander wide 'mongst the people,

And noble books got he for guides in his labours.

15

That English book took he, made by Saint

Bæda;

Another in Latin, left by Saint Albin,

And the bless'd Austin,' who baptism brought

us;

A third he took likewise, and laid it among them,

That a French clerk had made,-Wace was he called,

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This goodly writing he gave to the noble Eleanor, of Henry, that high King, his Queen. Layamon laid these books down, their leaves he turned over,

With love he looked on them, the Lord grant him mercy,

Feather took he with fingers, and fair on the

book-skin

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The sooth words then wrote he, and set them together,

And these three writings he wrought into one.

Now Layamon prayeth for the Lord's love Almighty,

Each wise man who readeth words in this book written,

And heedeth this teaching, that these holy wordės

He say all together:

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For the soul of his father, who forth him broughtė,

For the soul of his mother, who made him a man, And for his own soul, so that better befall it. Amen.

the legendary history of Britain, based largely on the Brut of the Anglo-Norman poet Wace. Brut Brutus, who according to the fabulous accounts of Geoffrey of Monmouth and others was the grandson of Æneas, and the founder of New Troy or London. 2 Killed.

Austin, i. e. St. Augustine, the first Archbishop of Canterbury.

• Pen.

Orm

ORMULUM1

(c. 1215-1220)

Now, brother Walter, brother mine
After the fleshes kind,

And brother mine in Christendom

Through baptism and through truth, And brother mine eke in God's house, Once more, in a third way,

Since that we two have taken both

One book of rules to follow.

Under the canons' rank and life

So as Saint Austin2 set;

I now have done even as thou bad'st,
Forwarding to thy will,

I now have turned into English

The Gospel's holy lore,

After that little wit that me

My Lord and God has lent.

Thou thoughtest how that it might well To mickle profit turn,

If English folk, for love of Christ,

It readily would learn

And follow it, fulfilling it

With thought, with word, with deed, And therefore yearnedst thou that I This work for thee should work; And I have forwarded it for thee, And all through help of Christ. And since the holy gospel book

All this goodness shows us,

This sevenfold good that Christ to us
Did grant through His great love,

For this 'tis meet all Christian folk
Should follow gospel's lore.

And therefore have I rendered it
Into English speech,

Because I wished most earnestly

That all good English folk
With ear should hearken unto it,
With heart should truly believe,
With tongue should ever tell of it,
In deed should follow it,

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There's none so rich, nor none so free,
But that he soon shall hence away.
Nothing may ever his warrant be,
Gold, nor silver, nor ermine gay.
Though swift, his end he may not flee,
Nor shield his life for a single day.
Thus is this world, as thou may'st see,
Like to the shadow that glides away.

This world all passes as the wind,
When one thing comes, another flies;
What was before, is now behind;
What was held dear, we now despise.
Therefore he does as doth the blind
That in this world would claim his prize.
This world decays, as ye may find;
Truth is put down and wrong doth rise.

The love that may not here abide,
Thou dost great wrong to trust to now;
E'en so it soon shall from thee glide,
'Tis false, and brittle, and slight, I trow,
Changing and passing with every tide,
While it lasts it is sorrow enow;
At end, man wears not robe so wide
But he shall fall as leaf from bough.

Paris and Helen, where are they That were so bright and fair of face? 1 A love poem, writing, or counsel.

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20

25

35

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35

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It stands upon foundations sound,
So built that they shall never fall;
Nor miner sap them underground,
Nor shock e'er shake the eternal wall;
Cure for each wound therein is found,
Bliss, joy and song, fill all that hall.
The joys that do therein abound

The strife they waged was very strong. The Nightingale began the speech From her corner in a beech:

85

She sat upon a pleasant bough, Blossoms about there were enow,

15

Where in a thick and lonely hedge,

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Varied her song in many ways.

20

95

Are thine, thou may'st possess them all.

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Rather it seemed the joy I heard
Of harp or pipe than song of bird.
Such strains, methought, must rather float
From harp or pipe than feathered throat.

1 This poem and the following are examples of a popular poetic mode in the middle ages, i. e. debates or disputes. In The Owl and the Nightingale, the two birds are represented as disputing over their respective modes of life. The poem has a broad human interest, as the two birds express two opposing ideals of life: the nightingale that of the refined, joyous, pleasure-lover; the owl, that of the ascetic. The birds submit their case at last to the judgment of Nicholas of Guildford, whom some suppose to be the author of the poem.

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