above-mentioned may, to say the least, have no good influence on the minds of the ignorant and superstitious.

The ancients reckoned up five kinds of absolution. 1. That of Baptism. 2. That of the Eucharist. 3. That of the word and doctrine. 4. That of imposition of hands, and prayer. 5. That of reconcilement to the communion of the church, by a relaxation of her censures. The two first have been called sacramental; the third, declaratory; the fourth, precatory; and the fifth judicial. The first had no relation to penitential discipline, being never given to persons who had once received baptism. The second had some relation to it, but did not solely belong to it; for it was given to all baptized persons, who never fell under penitential discipline, as well as those who lapsed and were restored to communion again and in both respects it was called το τέλειον, the perfection or consummation of a Christian. By the third, the minister made public declaration to men of the terms of reconciliation and salvation. The fourth sort was used as a concomitant of most other absolutions; and by the fifth, penitents were finally restored to the peace and full communion of the church.

In the Liturgy of the Church of England, there are three several forms of absolution. The first is that at morning prayer, "Almighty God, &c. who hath given power, &c. He pardoneth and absolveth," &c. The second is used at the visitation of the sick, Our Lord Jesus Christ, who hath left power to his church, &c. by his authority committed to me, I absolve thee," &c. The third is in the communion service, "Almighty God, &c. who hath promised forgiveness of sins, &c. have mercy upon you," &c. These three different forms, says Bishop Sparrow, are, in sense and virtue, the same," For as when a prince hath granted a commission to any servant of his, to release out of prison all penitent offenders whatever, it were all one, in effect, as to the prisoner's discharge, whether this servant says, by virtue of a commission granted to me, under the prince's hand and seal, I release this prisoner; or thus, the prince, who hath given me this commission, pardons you; or lastly, the prince pardon and deliver you so here," &c.

The form of absolution, which the pope gives to crowned heads who have been excommunicated, is briefly this.

The pope is seated on a rich pontifical throne erected before St. Peter's church, attended by the apostolical court. The ambassadors of the excommunicated princes appear before this assembly, and throw themselves at his holiness's feet, asking pardon in the name of their masters, and desiring absolution. Then they lay their hands on the mass-book, and swear, by the Holy Gospels, and the Holy Crucifix, obedience to the church. Then the pope, and twelve cardinalpriests, sing the Miserere, observing to strike the ambassadors on the shoulder at the beginning of each verse. The ceremony ends with prayers, and the imposition of a penance proportionable to the crime of the person absolved.

ABSTEMII, a name given to such persons as could not partake of the cup of the eucharist, on account of their natural aversion to wine.

ABSTINENCE. See FASTING.

ABSTINENTS, a set of heretics that appeared in France and Spain about the end of the third century. They are supposed to have borrowed part of their opinions from the Gnostics and Manichæans, because they opposed marriage, condemned the use of flesh meat, and placed the Holy Ghost in the class of created beings.

ABUNA (our father), the title of the Patriarch of Abyssinia, who is generally taken from among the Coptic priests, as the Abyssinians and Copts keep up a communication with each other at Cairo. He has under him the Kamosats, or the chief priests of the secular clergy, the learned theologians and monks.

ACACIANS, a set of heretics in the fourth century; so named from Acacius, bishop of Cæsarea, who denied the Son to be of the same substance with the Father, though some of them allowed that he was of a similar substance. Also the name of another sect, named after Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, in the fifth century, who favoured the opinions of Eutychus.-See EUTYCHIANS.

ACADEMICS, a denomination given to the cultivators of a species of philosophy originally derived from Socrates, and afterwards illustrated and enforced by Plato. The contradictory systems which had been successively urged upon the world were become so numerous, that, from a view of the variety and uncertainty of human opinions, many were led to conclude that truth lay beyond

the reach of our comprehension. The consequence of this conclusion was absolute scepticism: hence the existence of God, the immortality of the soul, the preferableness of virtue to vice, were all held as uncertain. This sect, with that of the Epicureans, were the two chief that were in vogue at the time of Christ's appearance, and were embraced and supported by persons of high rank and wealth. A consideration of the principles of these two sects [see EPICUREANS] will lead us to form an idea of the deplorable state of the world at the time of Christ's birth; and the necessity there was of some divine teacher to convey to the mind true and certain principles of religion and wisdom. Jesus Christ, therefore, is with great propriety called the Day-Spring from on high, the Sun of Righteousness, that arose upon a benighted world to dispel the clouds of ignorance and error, and discover to lost man the path of happiness and heaven. But, as we do not mean to enlarge much upon these and some other sects, which belong rather to philosophy than theology, we shall refer the reader to Buddeus's Introduction to the History of Philosophy; Stanley's Lives; Bruckers's History of Philosophy; or (which is more modern) Enfield's Abridgment.

ACADEMY, a place in which the sciences are taught, and in a more restricted theological sense, a house or establishment in which young men are trained for the ministry. The name is derived from the Athenian academy belonging to a certain Academus, which was a famous school for gymnastic exercises, and a place where Plato taught. The first institution of antiquity which merits the name, was that of Alexandria. Attracted by the generosity of the Ptolemies, a numerous association of scholars was collected in that city, who were to have laboured for the perfection and extension of human knowledge, but soon fell into idleness or the exercise of grammatical subtleties. From Alexandria it is supposed the Jews borrowed the custom of founding academies, which were established after the close of the first century, in the cities on the Euphrates, Sora, Neharda, and Punebedita. They had also a famous school at Tiberias, which flourished for several centuries. From them the Nestorians learned in the sixth century to value science, and imparted the same spirit to the Arabs, whose caliphs, Almansor, Harun-al-Ra

shid, and Almamum, founded a number of academies, which were extended from Cordova, in Spain, to Bockara in the East, with the greatest success. At the court too of Charlemagne we find an academy founded by the emperor, at the suggestion of his instructor, Alcuin, of which he was himself a member. This useful institution was broken up after the death of Alcuin, and no academies, properly so called, are found till the time of the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, when several Greek scholars were compelled to flee to Italy. Lorenzo de Medici then founded, at Florence, the first Grecian academy, under the care of Argyropylus, Theodore Gaza, and Chalcondylas. Cosmo afterwards established the Platonic academy, the object of which was the study of the writings of Plato, and the restoration of his philosophy.This gave place to others of various names, which, with numbers of more recent origin, still exist.

The term, in its theological acceptation, is now almost exclusively applied to those collegiate seminaries in which candidates for the work of the ministry among Dissenters are conducted through the requisite preparatory courses of instruction; an account of which is contained in the following article.

ACADEMIES, DISSENTING.-The origin of these institutions is to be traced to the ejection of many of the most learned ministers of the Church of England, by the Act of Uniformity, the introduction of certain oaths as prerequisites to admission into the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and the necessity of making provision for the due instruction of such as should be called to labour in future among the nonconformist portion of the community. The 'edict that deprived those divines of their livings, could not despoil them of their erudition. The treasures of knowledge which they had acquired at the university, eminently qualified them for undertaking the tuition of youth; while the straitened circumstances to which many of them were reduced, obliged them to open schools and establish academies, in which they taught the classics, and read lectures on different branches of theology and general science. As might be expected, these rising seminaries were viewed with fear and jealousy, and harassing processes were instituted in the Spiritual Court against those who presided over them.

The first dissenting academy was opened at the village of Rathmill, near Giggleswick, in Yorkshire, in the year 1665, by Richard Frankland, whom Cromwell had fixed upon to preside over the college which he erected for academical learning at Durham, but who was driven from his situation when the institution was put down at the Restoration. In this seclusion he educated not fewer than three hundred young men. Much about the same time similar institutions were established at Newington Green, under Mr. Morton and Mr. Gale; at Sheriffhales, under Mr. Woodhouse; at Taunton, under Mr. Warren; at Shrewsbury, under Mr. Owen; at Hoxton, under Mr. Spademan; at Islington, under Mr. Doolittle; at Sulby and Little Creation, under Mr. Shuttlewood; at Wickham Brook, under Mr. Cradock; at Tewksbury, under Mr. Jones, and subsequently at different places in various counties, under the care of gifted and zealous ministers. These schools, many of which were continued by able tutors, after the death of those who had founded them, sent forth a noble race of ministers, whose labours were eminently blessed, for promoting the interests of true religion, throughout the country.

Subsequently academies were established in other places,-among which that of Northampton, under Dr. Doddridge, ranked first, and furnished, during the presidency of that eminent_servant of Christ, not fewer than one hundred and twenty ministers.

Of those now in existence the first place is due to

HOMERTON COLLEGE, which consists of two foundations, one of which dates as far back as 1690; and the other, to which the property belongs, commenced in 1730. It was removed to its present most eligible situation, from Mile End, in 1772, at which time its professors were Drs. Fisher, Conder, and Gibbons. It has always been in the highest repute for classical learning; and the distinguished rank which its present divinity tutor, the Rev. Dr. Pye Smith, holds in the theological world, has procured for it an equal degree of celebrity, as it regards accurate and profound biblical knowledge, and extensive and practical views of ecclesiastical literature. The number of students averages about fifteen.

HIGHBURY COLLEGE, which, like the

preceding, is situated in the immediate vicinity of London, is a continuation, on an improved plan, of the institution formerly established at Hoxton, from which upwards of three hundred ministers have been sent forth into the vineyard of the Lord. Originally the academy was founded at Mile End, under Dr. Addington, in 1783; it was removed to Hoxton in 1791; but the situation becoming more and more unsuitable, it was ultimately removed, in 1826, to its present site. It furnishes accommodation for forty students. The term of study is four years; and the students of the two more advanced classes are privileged to preach in the metropolis and its vicinity, as well as in towns within a convenient distance, according to their standing and talents.

HACKNEY ACADEMY, likewise in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, was founded by the late Rev. J. Eyre, A.M. with a view to educate a number of young men, at a less expenditure both of time and money, who might be sent forth to itinerate in the dark villages of England and Wales. Its sole tutor is the Rev. George Collison, A.M., under whom the course of education has continued, as far as the limited period of study will permit, to progress with the advancement of the times.

WYMONDLEY COLLEGE, near Hitchin, Herts, is properly a continuation of Dr. Doddridge's academy, which had been removed to Daventry, and again to Northampton, and became completely socinianised under Belsham and Horsey. Having been dissolved by the trustees of Coward's Fund, by which the instistution is supported, the establishment was re-formed at Wymondley on orthodox principles, where it continues to flourish, with the fullest confidence of the religious public. The library, in which are some interesting manuscripts of Dr. Doddridge, is considered the most valuable among the dissenters. Measures are now adopting for the removal of this institution to the vicinity of the London University.

AIREDALE COLLEGE, near Bradford, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. This institution, which originated in circumstances connected with that founded nearly about the same time at Rotherham, and has flourished for many years under the able and disinterested superintendence of the Rev. Mr. Vint, of Idle, has recently been removed to a new

building at Undercliffe, in consequence of a bequest of two estates, by Mrs. Bacon, of Bradford, and continues to enjoy the able tuition of that venerable minister.

ROTHERHAM COLLEGE, near Sheffield, dates its rise from the settlement of the late Rev. Dr. Williams, as pastor of a church in the vicinity. Besides furnishing some of the ablest tutors to Homerton, it has given education to a considerable number of eminent and laborious dissenting ministers.

BLACKBURN ACADEMY, in Lancashire, arose in 1816 out of the more private seminary of the late excellent Mr. Roby of Manchester, and continues to afford efficient means of instruction for young men designed for the ministry.

WESTERN ACADEMY, a name given to an institution established on evangelical principles, for supplying the west of England with gospel ministers. It was first under Mr. Lavington of St. Mary Ottery, Devon, and has been successively under Messrs. Rooker of Bridport, Reader of Taunton, and Mr. Small of Axminster; from which place it was removed, a few years ago, to Exeter, where it is now likely to be conducted on a more permanent and efficient footing, under the able superintendence of the Rev. Dr. Payne.

NEWPORT-PAGNEL INSTITUTION, an academy in Buckinghamshire, which had its origin in the benevolent plans of the late excellent John Thornton, Esq., in connexion with the Rev. John Newton, Cowper the poet, and the Rev. J. Clayton, senior. It was established in 1784, on the principle of preparing suitable candidates for the ministry, without regard to their particular views as to church government, and has given education to upwards of fifty ministers, most of whom are pastors of independent churches.

CHESHUNT COLLEGE, in Hertfordshire, was established in 1792, having been removed thither on the breaking up of the Countess of Huntington's College at Trevecka, in South Wales, in consequence of the controversy on Arminianism which separated the methodists into two bodies. This institution agrees with that just noticed in leaving the students entirely free in their choice of the denomination of Christians to whom they shall belong. The term of education is four years; the number of students fourteen.

There are also two dissenting academies in Wales; one at Carmarthen, and

another at Newton, by which the wants of the principality are in part supplied; but many Welsh students frequent the academies in England.

All the literary establishments above enumerated belong to dissenters of the Pado-baptist persuasion. The AntiPado-baptists have similar institutions, of which the principal are:

BRISTOL ACADEMY, commenced in the reign of George II., and has given education to a considerable number of ministers who have been an honour to the denomination. The number of students is about twenty. Its library in 1825 contained upwards of 7000 volumes.

BRADFORD ACADEMY opened in 1806: furnishes accommodation for twenty-two students.

STEPNEY ACADEMY was founded in 1810. It educates at present fourteen students, but has ample room for more, if the funds of the institution would allow.

ABERGAVENNY ACADEMY, founded in 1807 for the education of Welsh Baptist ministers, educates at present only seven students.

In all the academies of both persuasions, no principles but those generally accounted orthodox are taught. Arian or Socinian academies have existed at Exeter, Hoxton, Warrington, Hackney, and Manchester; but though enjoying the tuition of such eminent literary characters as Drs. Taylor, Aiken, Priestley, &c., they were not able to sustain themselves, and gradually died away. The only seminary which the Socinians now have is at York, whither it was removed from Manchester in 1803. The number of its students has never exceeded twenty.

In Scotland the Presbyterian Dissenters have what they term divinity halls, in which their students are carried through different courses on theology; and the Congregationalists have a theological academy at Glasgow, where they enjoy the able tuition of the Rev. Messrs. Ewing and Wardlaw, and possess, besides, the privilege of attending the different courses at the university.

America, rising rapidly into importance and influence as a modern state, stands distinguished also for the number and efficiency of her colleges. Most of these, however, differ essentially from our dissenting colleges. Being designed to furnish tuition in all the branches of ancient and modern literature, and there

by to prepare youth for any department which they may be called to fill, they receive young men without discrimination as to religious character. With their theological seminaries it is otherwise. Into most of these none are admitted who do not give satisfactory evidence of piety and devotedness to the sacred objects of the Christian ministry. They are established at Andover, Princeton, Bongor, Cambridge, Alleghany, Alexandria, New Brunswick, Hartwick, Gettysburg, Carlisle, Maryville, and Rock Spring, &c. Of these, that at Cambridge alone is heterodox, being designed for the instruction of students connected with the Socinian congregations. Andover Institution was established in 1807. It has a president and four professorships. The course of study embraces three years; the students coming well prepared from some of the colleges, where they have gone through the classics and the various courses on human literature. The first year is devoted to sacred literature, the second to Christian theology, and the third to sacred rhetoric. It contains one hundred and twenty students.

Into the British dissenting academies no young man is received who does not bring sufficient testimonials as to moral character, piety, and talents, and who has not previously submitted to a close and particular examination. These being satisfactory, the candidate is admitted on three months' probation, at the expiration of which, if the report of the tutors be favourable, he is fully received.

ACATHOLICI, those in general who do not belong to the Catholic Church. In Roman Catholic countries Protestants are distinguished by this name.

ACCENSORII, or LIGHTERS, a name given to the ancient acolouthi, because they lighted the candles in the churches. ACCLAMATIONS, ECCLESIASTICAL, were shouts of joy which the people expressed by way of approbation of their preachers. It hardly seems credible to us that practices of this kind should ever have found their way into the church, where all ought to be reverence and solemnity. Yet so it, was in the fourth century. The people were not only permitted, but sometimes even exhorted, by the preacher himself, to approve his talents by clapping of hands, and loud acclamations of praise. The usual words they made use of were, Orthodox," "Third Apostle," &c. These acclamations being carried to excess, and often

misplaced, were frequently prohibited by the ancient doctors, and at length abrogated. Even as late, however, as the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, we find practices that were not very decorous; such as loud humming, frequent groaning, strange gestures of the body, &c. See articles DANCERS, SHAKERS. ACCOMMODATION, the application of one thing by analogy to another, in consequence of a resemblance real or supposed, between them. To know a thing by accommodation is to know it by the idea of a similar thing referred to it.

In theology, the term accommodation is applied to what may be called the indirect fulfilment of prophecy; as when passages, that originally related to one event, are quoted as if they referred to another, in which some resemblance may be traced. The method of explaining scripture on this principle of accommodation, serves, it has been said, as a key for solving some of the greatest difficulties relating to the prophecies. It has been justly called a convenient principle; for, if it were once generally adopted, we should get rid of the strongest proofs of the truth of Christianity, which prophecy has hitherto been supposed to furnish. It is not affirmed, that this is either the wish or the design of some of the authors who have adopted and defended the principle of accommodation; but scarcely any of them, with the exception perhaps of one or two German divines, have pleaded for its unlimited application to the Old Testament predictions. It is vain to press even Michaelis into the service, as has been lately attempted; for both he and his no less acute and learned commentator Marsh, expressly avow, not merely their doubt of the propriety of universally extending this principle, but their conviction of the danger with which it would be attended, and of the inconclusive reasonings which its patrons have brought forward in its defence. (Vide Marsh's Michaelis, vol. i. p. 200-214, and Notes, p. 470-479.) The following view of the subject is taken chiefly from their statements.

This mode of interpreting the prophecies was early introduced among theologians, probably by Origen, who employs it under the name of Oxovou (which the Latin fathers afterwards called dispensatio), in replying to the objections o Celsus; and whose allegorical disposition did such injury to the cause of truth. They expressly affirmed that the Apostles