effect their ruin. Meanwhile, the seven years' war continued, and France, after experiencing continual reverses, was compelled, by the exhausted state of her finances, to conclude a peace, in 1763, on unfavorable terms. This misfortune could not be ascribed to the two ministers who divided between themselves the administration of the state. Less able ministers would probably have been obliged to make greater sacrifices. But the honors and demonstrations of favor with which Choiseul and Praslin were loaded were sufficient to draw upon them the bitterest accusations. Their enemies asserted that they only prolonged the war to render themselves necessary, and reproached them for not having sooner concluded peace. Madame de Pompadour died in 1764, the dauphin in 1765, and the dauphiness in 1767. After spreading the most absurd and infamous reports concerning the death of the dauphin, to throw suspicions on Choiseul, his enemies, the duke d'Aiguillon, the abbé Terray, and the chancellor Maupeou, had recourse to the vilest instruments to effect his ruin. They succeeded so far, that Louis XV, in spite of the representations of the minister, and his own promises, degraded the royal dignity by introducing the countess du Barry (q. v.) at court. At first, the countess used all her arts to insinuate herself into the favor of the minister. Her ambition was, to succeed to all the influence of madame de Pompadour. Choiseul haughtily refused her proposals; but, laudable as was his conduct towards the mistress, he ought not to have allowed himself to forget the respect due to his king and benefactor. He might, perhaps, have persuaded him by compliance: his boldness only irritated him, and supplied his enemies with new pretexts for assailing him. The duchess of Grammont, the minister's sister, always possessed great influence over him. She exercised it, on this occasion, without the least moderation, encouraged by the discontent of the nation, which favored the parliaments, then attacked by the chancellor Maupeou. The cause of the parliaments and the minister soon became one. The king was persuaded that Choiseul excited them to opposition. The attachment of Louis to his minister struggled, for some time, against the intrigues of his enemies; but, in December, 1770, he announced to him, in severe terms, his disgrace, and his banishment to Chanteloup. The departure of Choiseul resembled a triumph. His removal was considered, by the nation, a

public misfortune. He lived three years in exile, surrounded by a splendid and select society. On the death of Louis XV, he recovered his liberty, having been in exile just long enough to increase his reputation, and to confirm the general esteem in which he was held. While minister of war, after seven years of reverses, he had changed the organization of the army, in consequence of the new tactics introduced by Frederic the Great. Although the displeasure of the old officers was excited, and many gave in their resignations, yet the necessity of the change was soon evident. The corps of artillery received a new form, and excellent schools were established, in which officers were educated, who rendered the French artillery the finest in Europe. The same improvements were made in the corps of engineers. Choiseul devoted particular attention to the West Indies. Martinique was fortified anew, and St. Domingo raised to the highest degree of prosperity. When Choiseul and Praslin left the ministry, in 1770, the loss of the fleet had been repaired in less than seven years. It consisted of 64 ships of the line and 50 frigates and corvettes. The magazines were filled. Choiseul also concluded the family compact, which united all the sovereigns of the house of Bourbon, and placed the Spanish fleet at the disposal of France. Thus he recovered the respect which France had lost by her military reverses. His firmness supplied what was wanting to his country in real strength. He conquered Corsica without any open opposition from England. Convinced of the importance of the independence of Poland for the balance of Europe, he continually thwarted the ambitious designs of Russia, and involved it in a war with Turkey, which he would have supported more vigorously, had not the king himself opposed it. French officers were sent to the Polish confederates, to the Turks, and the East Indian princes, whom he hoped to arm, as well as the American colonies, against the English. Prodigal of his own fortune, he was frugal in the public expenditures. Louis XV soon felt the loss of Choiseul, and exclaimed, on hearing of the division of Poland, "This would not have happened had Choiseul been here." After Louis XVI ascended the throne, Choiseul was recalled, and received in the most honorable manner, but was not again admitted into the ministry. Notwithstanding his immense debts, he continued to support an expensive style of living, and

CHOISEUL-STAINVILLE, Claude Antoine Gabriel, duke of, born 1762, peer of France before the revolution. He emigrated in 1792, after he had assisted the flight of the king, in 1791, and been arrested and released. He raised a regiment of hussars, and served against France. In the sequel, he was shipwrecked on the French coast, taken, and remained four years in prison, while it was debated whether the laws against emigrants returning to France were applicable to him. The first consul released him, and caused him to be transported into a neutral territory, January 1, 1800. In 1801, he gave him permission to return to France. After the restoration, Choiseul was made lieutenant-general. In the house of peers, he joined the constitutional party. He has written Relation du Départ de Louis XVI, le 20 Juin, 1791, and the Hist. et Procès des Naufragés de Calais (both in the Mémoires des Contemporains). CHOISEUL-GOUFFIER, Marie Gabriel Auguste, count de, peer of France, born in 1752, adopted the name of Gouffier after his marriage with Mile. de Gouffier. In 1776, he travelled in Greece and Asia. His instructive journal of his travels obtained him a seat in the academy. In 1784, he was ambassador at Constantinople, and took with him several literary men and artists, in whose society he occupied himself, during his leisure hours, in learned researches. In 1791, he was appointed ambassador to the court of London, but remained in Constantinople, and addressed all his notes to the brothers of Louis XVI, then in Germany. But, on the retreat from Champagne, this correspondence fell into the hands of the republicans, and, October 22, 1792, the convention ordered his arrest. He therefore left Constantinople, and repaired to Russia, where the empress granted him a pension, as an academician. In February, 1797, he was appointed privy-counsellor by the emperor Paul I. In 1802, he returned to France, and, in the following year, as a member of the former academy, was admitted into the national institute, and, more lately, into the academy itself, after its restoration. He died in the summer of 1817. The 1st part of the 2d volume of his Voyage pittoresque en Grèce appeared in 1809, the 2d part in 1820, the 3d in 1824, gr. folio, with copperplates and an atlas. The 1st volume of this work was published in 1782. In 1816, he read, in the academy of inscriptions, a

CHOLERA (Celsus derives it from xon and pw, literally, a flow of bile, and Trallian from xolas and tw, intestinal flux); diarrhea cholerica; felliflua passio; a genus of disease arranged by Cullen in the class neuroses and order spasmi. It is a purging and vomiting of bile, attended with anxiety, painful gripings, spasms of the abdominal muscles, and those of the calves of the legs. There are two species of this genus:-1. Cholera spontanea, which happens, in hot seasons, without any manifest cause. 2. Cholera accidentalis, which occurs after the use of food that digests slowly and irritates. In warm climates, it is met with at all seasons of the year, and its occurrence is very frequent; but in England, and other cold climates, it is most prevalent in the middle of summer, particularly in the month of August; and the violence of the disease has usually been greater in proportion to the intenseness of the heat. It usually comes on with soreness, pain, distension, and flatulency in the stomach and intestines, succeeded quickly by a severe and frequent vomiting, and purging of bilious matter, heat, thirst, a hurried respiration, and frequent but weak and fluttering pulse. When the disease is not violent, these symptoms, after continuing for a day or two, cease gradually, leaving the patient in a debilitated and exhausted state; but where the disease proceeds with much violence, great depression of strength ensues, with cold, clammy sweats, considerable anxiety, a hurried and short respiration, and hiccoughs, with a sinking and irregularity of the pulse, which quickly terminate in death-an event that not unfrequently happens within the space of 24 hours. The appearances generally observed on dissection are, a quantity of bilious matter in the prima viæ; the ducts of the liver relaxed and distended. Several of the viscera have been found, in some cases, displaced, probably by the violent vomiting. In the early period of the disease, when the strength is not much exhausted, the object is, to lessen the irritation, and facilitate the discharge of the bile, by tepid demulcent liquids, frequently administered. It will likewise be useful to procure a determination to the surface, by fomentations of the abdomen, by the foot-bath, or even the warm-bath. But where the symptoms are urgent, and the patient appears rapidly sinking from the continued vomiting, violent pain, &c., it is necessary to give opium freely, but in a

small bulk, from one to three grains, or even more, in a table-spoonful of linseed infusion, or with an effervescing saline draught, which must be repeated at short intervals, perhaps every hour, till relief be obtained. Sometimes, where the stomach could not be got to retain the opium, it has answered in the form of clyster; or a liniment containing it may be rubbed into the abdomen; or a blister, applied over the stomach, may lessen the irritability of that organ. Afterwards, the bile may be allowed to evacuate itself downwards; or mild aperients, or clysters, given, if necessary, to promote its discharge. When the urgent symptoms are relieved, the strength must be restored by gentle tonics, as the aromatic bitters, calumba, and the like, with a light, nutritious diet: strong toast and water is the best drink, or a little burnt brandy may be added, if there is much languor. Exposure to cold must be carefully avoided. The abdomen and the feet, particularly, must be kept warm, and great attention is necessary to regulate the bowels, and procure a regular discharge of bile, lest a relapse should happen. It will also be proper to examine the state of the abdomen, whether pressure give pain at any part, because inflammation in the prima via is very liable to supervene, often in an insidious manner. Should that be the case, leeches, blistering the part, and other suitable means, must be promptly resorted to.

CHOLESTERIC ACID; a French name for the acid formed by the union of nitric acid and the fat matter of the human biliary calculi.

CHOLESTERINE. (See Calculus.) CHOLIAMB (Greek, xwdianßos, the lame iambus; also called skazon, from okálw, to halt; or versus Hipponacticus, because the satirist Hipponax of Ephesus made use of it, or perhaps invented it). The choliambus is an iambic trimeter, the last foot of which, instead of being an iambus, is a trochee or spondee, which gives it a lame motion, as, for instance, Martial 1, i. epig. 3:

Cur in theatrum, Cato severe, venisti?

An ideo tantum veneras, ut exires ?

We perceive, from the construction of the choliambus, that it may be applied with advantage to produce a comic effect. The Germans have happily imitated this verse, as well as all other ancient metres. An instance of a German choliambus is—

98° 8' W.; population, 16,000. It was formerly a city of Anahuac, containing, in the time of Cortes, according to his account, 40,000 houses, independent of the adjoining villages or suburbs, which he computed at as many more. Its commerce consisted in manufactures of cotton, gems, and plates of clay; and it was much famed for its jewellers and potters. With respect to religion, it may be said that Cholula was the Rome of Anahuac. The surprising multitude of temples, of which Cortes mentions that he counted more than 400, and, in particular, the great temple erected upon an artificial mountain, which is still existing, drew together innumerable pilgrims. This temple, which is the most ancient and celebrated of all the Mexican religious monuments, is 164 feet in perpendicular height, and, at the base, it measures, on each side, 1450 feet. It has four stories of equal height, and appears to have been constructed exactly in the direction of the four cardinal points. It is built in alternate layers of clay and bricks, and is supposed to have been used both as a temple and a tomb.

CHORAL (derived from chorus); a term applied to vocal music, consisting of a combination of different melodies, and intended to be performed by a plurality of singers to each part; as choral anthem, choral service. In Germany, this term is applied to the music of hymns, in the composition of which the Germans are so much distinguished.

CHORD (from the Greek xopǹ, an intestine), in modern music; a combination of two or more sounds according to the laws of harmony. The word chord is often used in counterpoint; as fundamental chord, accidental, anomalous, or equi-vocal, transient chord.

CHOREGRAPHY; an invention of modern times; the art of representing dancing by signs, as singing is represented by notes. It points out the part to be performed by every dancer-the various motions which belong to the various parts of the music, the position of the feet, the arms, and the body, &c. The degree of swiftness with which every motion is to be performed may be thus indicated, by which all becomes as intelligible to the dancer as a piece of music to the musician. Drawings to assist the tactician, by designating the position, motion and evolutions of troops, have also been called choregraphical drawings.

CHORIAMBUS, in metre; a foot compounded of a trochee and an iambus. (See Rhythm.)

CHOROGRAPHY; the description of a single district, in contradistinction to geography (the description of the earth). The art of drawing maps of particular districts is also called chorography.

CHORUS, in the drama. This was, originally, a troop of singers and dancers, intended to heighten the pomp and solemnity of festivals. This, without doubt, was at first the purpose of tragedy and comedy, of which the chorus was originally the chief part, in fact, the basis. In the sequel, it is true, the chorus became only an accessory part. During the most flourishing period of Attic tragedy, the chorus was a troop of male and female personages, who, during the whole representation, were bystanders or spectators of the action, never quitting the stage. In the intervals of the action, the chorus chanted songs, which related to the subject of the performance, and were intended either to augment the impression, or to express the feeling of the audience on the course of the action. Sometimes it even took part in the performance, by observations on the conduct of the personages, by advice, consolation, exhortation or dissuasion. It usually represented a part, generally the oldest portion of the people, where the action happened, sometimes the counsellors of the king, &c. The chorus was an indispensable part of the representation. In the beginning, it consisted of a great number of persons, sometimes as many as 50; but the number was afterwards limited to 15. The exhibition of a chorus was in Athens an honorable civil charge, and was called choragy. The leader or chief of a chorus was called coryphæus, who spoke in the name of the rest, when the chorus participated in the action. Sometimes the chorus was divided into two parts, who sung alternately. The divisions of the chorus were not stationary, but moved from one side of the stage to the other; from which circumstance the names of the portions of verse which they recited, strophe, antistrophe and epode, are derived. But it cannot be determined in what manner the chorus sung. It is probable that it was in a sort of solemn recitative, and that their melodies, if we may call them so, consisted in unisons and octaves, and were very simple. They were also accompanied by instruments, perhaps flutes. With the decline of ancient tragedy, the chorus was omitted. Some tragedians of the present age, of whom Schiller was the first (see his prologue to the Bride of Messina) have attempted to revive the ancient chorus.

Chorus, in music, in its general sense, denotes a composition of two, three, four or more parts, each of which is intended to be sung by a plurality of voices. It is applied, also, to the performers who sing those parts. These choruses are adapted to express the joy, admiration, grief, adoration, &c., of a multitude, and sometimes produce much effect, but are very difficult for the composer.

CHOSROES I, king of Persia, succeeded to the throne in 531. His memory is still venerated in the East, and his virtues obtained him the titles of the Magnanimous and the Just. At his accession to the crown, Persia was involved in a war with Justinian, to whom Chosroes granted a perpetual peace, on the payment of a large sum of money. But, in 540, Chosroes invaded Syria, laid Antioch in ashes, and returned home laden with spoils. After several other victorious expeditions, he invaded India and Arabia, renewed the war with Justin, the successor of Justinian, whom he compelled to solicit a truce, but was, soon after, driven back across the Euphrates by Tiberius, the new emperor, and the Romans took up their winter quarters in the Persian provinces. Chosroes died in 579. His love of justice sometimes led him to acts of cruelty; but he encouraged the arts, founded academies, and made a considerable proficiency in philosophy himself. His reputation obtained him a visit from seven sages of Greece, who still adhered to the pagan religion; and, in a treaty with Justinian, he required that they should be exempt from the penalties enacted against those who continued to favor paganism. Persian historians ascribe to him the completion of the great wall of Jabouge and Magogue, extending from Derbent along the Persian frontiers.

CHOSROES II, grandson to the preceding, ascended the throne in 590, and carried his arms into Judea, Libya and Egypt, and made himself master of Carthage. In 617, he reduced Heraclius, the Roman emperor, to solicit a peace, which he refused to grant, except on condition of his renouncing the crucified God, and worshipping the sun. Heraclius, deriving courage from despair, penetrated into the Persian empire, and pillaged and burned the palace of Chosroes, who was dethroned by his own son, and cast into prison, after witnessing the massacre of 18 of his sons, and suffering every indignity. His sufferings were terminated by his death, in 628.

CHOUANS, in the French revolution; the insurgents on the right and left banks of

the Loire. The name was properly applied to the royalists on the right bank of the Loire, in Bretagne, Anjou and Maine. The principal theatre of the war formed nearly a square, the angles of which are the cities of Nantes, Angers, Mayenne and Rennes; but the excursions sometimes extended to the coast, to the city of L'Orient. The origin of the word Chouans is not known. Some derive it from the name of the sons of a blacksmith, who first excited the insurrection in that quarter; others from a corruption of the word chat-huant (screech-owl). According to the latter, there was a horde of smugglers, who, before the revolution, secretly exported salt from Bretagne into the neighboring provinces, and whose signal was the cry of the screech-owl. The revolution broke up the trade of these men, most of whom had no other resource. Accustomed to a vagabond life, they wandered through the country, committing depredations, and were gradually joined by others of a similar character. At first, murder and pillage was the chief object of these wretches, but they afterwards united with the Vendeans (see Vendée) in defence of monarchy and religion, and shared their fate. Since the return of Louis XVIII, several of the chiefs of the Chouans have been honorably rewarded for their former services.

CHOUGH, OF CHOUCH (choucas, French); the trivial name of a species of crow (corvus monedula, L.). It is about the size of a pigeon, and has a sharp cry; is nearly omnivorous, except that it does not feed upon carrion; is of a dark ash color about the neck and under the belly, though frequently entirely black. The choughs live together in large flocks, and make their nests in steeples, old towers, or in large and lofty trees. Their manners are very similar to those of the rooks, with which they are sometimes seen flying in company. They are exceedingly vigilant in guarding their nests and young from birds of prey, which they attack and drive off with great vigor whenever they approach their vicinity.

CHOUMLA, SHUMLA, or SHIUMLA; a Turkish fortress in the mountains of the Balkan. (q. v.) Varna (q. v.) and Choumla are called, on account of their great military importance, the gates of Constantinople. The town of Choumla, properly so called, is nearly surrounded by a natural rampart, consisting of a portion of mount Hæmus, or the Balkan. The steep slopes of this great bulwark are covered with detached rocks and close, thorny

bushes. The nature of the ground makes it a very advantageous position for the Turkish soldier, who, when sheltered by the inequalities of the ground and a few entrenchments, displays great resolution and address. The town is about a league in length and half a league in breadth, and may contain from 30,000 to 35,000 souls. The fortifications are rudely constructed, but its situation in the midst of a vast natural fortress, capable of containing an immense army, with its magazines, &c., secures it from the enemy's artillery. The air is very healthy in the elevated parts of the Balkan, and in the narrow valleys which lie between its ridges. On the other hand, there cannot be a more unhealthy country than that which extends from the Balkan to the borders of the Danube and the Pruth. This difference between the climate of the mountains and that of the plain is the most effectual defence which nature has given to Choumla. In the late war between Russia and Turkey, it was besieged by the troops of the former power from July 20, 1828, until Oct. 25, of the same year, when they retired, after the conquest of Varna, Oct. 11. On the 11th of June, 1829, a decisive victory was gained by the Russians over the Turks, not far from Choumla. The grand vizier commanded the Turks, who are said to have lost 6000 killed, 1500 prisoners, and 60 pieces of cannon, with large quantities of ammunition and baggage. The loss of the Russians amounted only to 1400 killed and 600 wounded.

CHRISM (from the Greek xpíopa, salve); the holy oil prepared on Holy Thursday by the Catholic bishops, and used in baptism, confirmation, ordination of priests, and the extreme unction. Hence the name Christ, the anointed.

CHRIST (Gr. Xoròs, the anointed). Messiah, from the Hebrew, has the same signification. (See Christianity, and Jesus.)

CHRIST, PICTURES OF. Legends exist of a portrait of the Savior, which king Abgarus of Edessa is said to have possessed. This was miraculously impressed by the Savior on a napkin which he placed upon his face, and afterwards sent to the king. The handkerchief of St. Veronica (Berenice) is said to have also contained a portrait of Christ impressed in a similar way. A picture of Christ, taken by St. Luke, is likewise mentioned. In a letter, evidently spurious, which Lentulus, the predecessor of Pilate, is said to have written to the Roman senate, Christ is described as being of a handsome, manly stature and countenance. Among