and to form permanent settlements. These settlers began to barter with those tribes who continued to wander with their herds from place to place. Thus cities sprung up. These were soon surrounded with walls, to prevent the inroads of the wandering tribes. The bond of connexion between their inhabitants thus became closer, and their organization more complete. As by degrees the chiefs of these family-states died away, the citizens began to elect the most able or most popular men for magistrates, without respect to birth or descent. Thus political institutions began to assume a systematic character. The earliest form of government succeeding the patriarchal state was probably monarchical. In this, the religious, paternal and political authority remained rudely mingled. The authority of the king was weak, his connexion with the different parts of his dominions imperfect, and the progress of civilization was promoted almost solely by the growth of the cities. These gave rise to the division of labor, the refinements of social intercourse, the developement of laws caused by the conflicting interests of many people living close together, the idea of equality of rights, the diminution of awe for a distant monarch, the growth of patriotism, springing from the sense of advantages enjoyed, and the exertions necessary to maintain them. These were the salutary consequences of the establishment of cities. Under the mild sky of Asia, Africa, Greece and Italy, cities were built first, and in the greatest number. The Phoenicians and Egyptians particularly distinguished themselves by the erection of cities, which soon attained a high degree of wealth, and consequently of civilization. The Egyptians considered their city Diospolis (Thebes) older than any of the Greek cities, and Pliny says that Cecropia (erected in Attica by Cecrops, 1582 B. C., and afterwards called Athens) was the oldest city of Greece. Heeren justly remarks, that the rise of cities was the most important source of the republicanism of antiquity. This is particularly true of Greece. In fact, cities are, by their very nature, of a republican tendency. Several confederations of cities existed in the ancient world; for instance, the Phoenician, consisting of the cities of Tyre, Sidon, &c., and the Achæan league, formed by the most important cities of Greece, in order to strengthen themselves against the power of Macedon. Under Augustus and his successors, the Romans began to establish colonial cities in Ger

many, having done the same long before in Gaul, Spain, Africa, &c. In Switzerland, they first erected cities about A. D. 70, which, however, were mostly laid waste by the Alemanni, and subsequently rebuilt under the government of the Franks (A. D. 496). The Germans, accustomed to a wild, rambling life, did not show any disposition to live in cities, until Charlemagne labored to collect them together in settled abodes, from his desire to civilize them. Henry I distinguished himself particularly in this way, and, on this account, has been called, by some, Henry the City-builder (der Städteerbauer). He gave the cities great privileges, in order to induce his subjects to live in them, and thus laid the foundation of that power, which, at a future period, contributed most to break down the feudal system. In many cities, imperial castles were erected to protect the inhabitants, and the insupportable oppressions and even cruelties exercised by the feudal lords upon their peasants, or by the wandering knights and robbers, drove many people into the cities. The attacks of the neighboring lords gave firmness to their union, and compelled them to cultivate their resources. Commerce and the various arts and trades were soon cultivated within their walls, and their wealth and respectability increased. They soon became sensible of the want of a better system of laws and political administration than prevailed around them, and the principle of equal rights and laws was quickly developed.

One of the most important remnants, if not the most important, of the great fabric of ancient civilization, was the cities of Italy. What the world would have become without them is not to be calculated. In spite of their bloody contests with each other, and the vices to which these gave rise, they must be considered as having lighted the torch of modern civilization. It was not the monarchies, it was not the courts of the great princes, it was the cities of Northern Italy, which opened the way for the progress of improvement; and the petty princes of Italy caught from them the spirit which prompted their efforts to promote it. Under the reign of Conrad III (1138-52), the cities of Lombardy, and particularly Milan, which stood at their head, had acquired a high degree of wealth and power, and had formed themselves into a confederation. The struggles between the emperors and these cities form one of the most important portions of the history of the German empire and of Italy. Frederic I in vain

of young rabbits in a confined situation, and fed them with coarse green food, such as cabbage and grass. They were perfectly healthy when put up. In about a month, one of them died. The primary step of disorganization was evinced in a number of transparent vesicles, studded over the external surface of its liver. In another, which died 9 days after, the disease had advanced to the formation of tubercles on the liver. The liver of a third, which died 4 days later still, had nearly lost its true structure, so universally was it pervaded with tubercles. Two days subsequently, a fourth died. A considerable number of hydatids were attached to the lower surface of the liver. At this time, doctor Baron removed three young rabbits from the place where their companions had died to another situation, dry and clean, and to their proper and accustomed food. The lives of these remaining three were obviously saved by this change. He obtained similar results from experiments of the same nature performed on other animals.-In Glasgow, the average annual mortality is about 1 in 44 persons.-In Paris, the poor and the rich occupy the two extremities of the scale. The mortality in the one is nearly double that in the other. The average is 1 in 32. The number of violent deaths, in 1823, was 690, of which 390 were cases of suicide. Reviewing, on one side, the great political, moral and physical events which have occurred at Paris during a succession of years, and, on the other, the progress of its population, Villerme has ascertained, that whenever the people have suffered from any cause, the deaths have correspondingly increased, the births have decreased, and the mean duration of life has been shortened. In periods of prosperity, he has found results directly opposite to these. The mean duration of life in Paris is 32 years and some months. It was formerly estimated that one third of the inhabitants of Paris died in the hospitals; but Dupin has lately calculated that half the deaths in Paris take place in the hospitals and other asylums of charity. Not a fourth part of the inhabitants are buried at private cost.-In Geneva, the average mortality for the four years ending in 1823 was 1 in 43, which is a greater mortality than in some of the largest manufacturing towns, as Glasgow, Manchester and Birmingham.-Petersburg. It is curious that the burials exceed the births in the Russian capital, by 134 to 100. The Russians attempt to explain this by the annual influx of per

sons from the provinces. But this influx is not peculiar to St. Petersburg. The last-mentioned city and Stockholm are the only known metropolitan cities which present the preponderance of death over production. The annual mortality of the Russian capital is 1 in 37.-Berlin. From 1747 to 1755, the annual mortality of Berlin was 1 in 28. Between 1726 and 1799, it improved to 1 in 29. Here the beneficial change was retarded by the ravages, the losses, the disappointments of war, and, from 1802 to 1806, it had retrograded to 1 in 27; but from 1816 to 1822, a period of exultation and tranquillity to the Prussians, the value of life took a remarkable leap, and the annual deaths fell to less than 1 in 34.-Vienna. In the middle of the last century, the mortality of Vienna was 1 in 20, and it has not improved in proportion as other cities of Europe. According to the most recent calculations, it is, even now, as 1 in 22. Among 10,530 deaths, scarcely 38 persons are found to have attained the age of 90. The spirit of excessive regulation, the dread of novelty, the restrictions imposed on the medical profession, and political causes which need not be enumerated, appear to have retarded the natural progress of this city. The overweening paternity of the government interferes with the trivial concerns of the citizens, in the same manner in which an arbitrary and untaught father sometimes restrains the useful impulses of his children, while he permits an easy vent to their baser propensitics.-Prague, the capital of Bohemia, has only one third the population of Vienna, and is much healthier. The superior longevity of the Jews is strongly marked in this city. One death is annually observed among 26 of the Israelites, and 1 in 22 among the Christians. Instances of considerable longevity, especially among the women, are not rare. Contrary to the usual observation, longevity is confined to poverty and married life. According to an average of several years, no nobleman, no wealthy person, no bachelor, and no unmarried woman, has passed the age of 95. This is an interesting fact, but it is an extreme and an insulated one, and does not militate against the general conservative tendency of prosperity, which a variety of evidence seems to establish.-Palermo. Mortality is here 1 in 31. January, October and November are the most fatal months; April, May and June the most healthy.-Leghorn. The average annual mortality here is 1 in 35. Among the

Protestants and Jews, it is only 1 in 48, which is attributed to their greater affluence.-Rome. From a recently discovered fragment of Cicero (De Republica), an intimation is conveyed that the neighborhood of Rome has been always unhealthy. Speaking of the choice of situation made by Romulus, he observes locum delegit in regione pestilente salubrem. The population appears to have been gradually decreasing till the last peace, which has greatly revived it. In 1800, there were 150,000 souls; in 1810, only 123,000. Within a few years, it has gained 10,000. The annual mortality is about 1 in 25. There can be little doubt that the force of the aguish disposition of Rome might be considerably weakened by steady and well-directed efforts, supported by a proportionate capital; but it is to be feared that such a combination of circumstances will not readily meet at Rome. In 1816, 17 out of the 22 French students were attacked with intermittent fevers. The Villa Medici, in which they reside, was formerly healthy; but water, brought at a great expense to embellish the garden, had been suffered to stagnate there.-Naples. The annual mortality here is 1 in 23; a fact that one would not have expected in such a delightful situation, compared with pestilential Rome, where the mortality is less. The population of Naples is nearly three times that of the ancient mistress of the world.-Brussels. The average mortality is very great, being 1 in 26.-Amsterdam. The population of this once great city is decreased, in consequence of declining commerce and political changes. And it is not a little curious, as well as melancholy, to observe that its mortality has increased with the progress of decay. In 1777, the ratio of mortality was 1 in 27a period when Amsterdam was one of the healthiest as well as one of the most flourishing cities of Europe. The deaths have now increased to 1 in 24, and Amsterdam is one of the least healthy as well as least prosperous seaports of Europe. A decree has been issued, that after the 1st of January, 1829, no burials shall be permitted in towns or churches throughout North Holland.-Stockholm. Drunkenness appears here, as at Berlin, to produce a large share of the mortality. In a recent year, this city exhibited a singular instance of an excess of 1439 more deaths than births a symptom which it is painful to observe in a brave and industrious people. This disproportion existed particularly amongst the garrison, and is

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ascribed to the immoderate use of brandy. Our authority affirms that this vice destroys the happiness and prosperity of Sweden more effectually than any war has ever done.

The medical police of large cities deserves particular attention, because the health of multitudes depends upon the care which is taken by the magistrates to remove the causes of disease which originate in a great population. Knowledge of this branch of medical science can be obtained only by attentive observation, and the study of the different health-regulations of large cities under governments which have paid particular attention to it.

Cities, in geography. A late German publication gives a statement of the hundred most populous cities in the world. Among these are

Inhab. 1,680,000

1,500,000

The 40th in the list is Berlin, with 193,000 inhabitants, and the last Bristol, with 87,000. Of the hundred cities, 2 contain 1,500,000; 2 upwards of 1,000,000; 9 from 500,000 to 1,000,000; 23 from 200,000 to 500,000; 56 from 100,000 to 200,000; and 6 from 87,000 to 100,000. 58 are in Asia, and 32 in Europe; of which 4 are in Germany, 4 in France, 5 in Italy, 8 in England, and 3 in Spain. The remaining 10 are divided between Africa and America.

Cities, in a moral point of view. Much has been said, written and preached against the immorality of large cities, and the fact cannot be denied; but immorality is not confined to them. The petty vices of small places, though less glaring, are, perhaps, equally injurious; making up in constant repetition for their comparatively less degree of noxiousness. It is much more difficult, moreover, to preserve one of the most important possessions, independence of character, in a small place than in a large one. The cry against the immorality of large cities

should not make us forget the many great and admirable things which mankind have been enabled to perform by means of the collected strength of talents and resources combined in large cities, and their influence in forming the character of great men, who could not have acquired, else where, their variety of accomplishment, and the well-proportioned cultivation of their various faculties. At the same time, we must allow that it is a very injurious policy to strip a whole country of all which illustrates and ennobles it, in order to swell the treasures of the capital. (See Capital.) CIUDAD, and CIVIDAD, in geography, the Spanish word for city, from the Latin civitas, appears in many names of Spanish places; as, Ciudad-de-las-Palmas, or Palmas (capital of the island of Grand Canary), Cividad-Real, &c.

CIUDAD-RODRIGO (anciently, Lancia, or Mirobriga); a fortress in Spain, in Leon, on the river Águada; 45 miles S.S. W. Salamanca; lon. 6° 33′ W.; lat. 40° 25′ N.: population, 11,000. It is a bishop's see. It was built by Ferdinand II, as a rampart against Portugal, from which it is only about eight miles distant. The fort, containing 6000 men, was surrendered to the French under Masséna, July 10, 1810, having been bombarded 25 days; and, Jan. 19, 1812, it was taken by storm by the British, under lord Wellington, after a siege of 11 days. The cortes gave Wellington the title of duke of Ciudad-Rodrigo, and the rank of a grandee of Spain, of the first class.

CIVET (viverra, Lin.); a genus of carnivorous mammiferous quadrupeds, natives of the torrid regions of the ancient continent, particularly distinguished by having a secretory apparatus, which forms a powerfully odorous matter, known by the name of civet. In general appearance, the species of this genus remind one of the fox, which they also resemble in habits; but the tail is long, hairy and cylindrical, and the claws, though by no means so acute as those of the cat, are still partially retractile, or cat-like. The resemblance of the viverra to the feline race is increased by the pupils of the eyes, which contract in a straight line, and by the color of the skin, which most species have banded or spotted with black upon a deep yellow or dun-colored ground. The tongue is studded with stout, horny prickles, and the ears are of middling size, straight, and rounded at their tips. The pouch, situated near the genitals, is a deep bag, sometimes divided into two cavities, whence a thick, oily, and strongly musk-like fluid is poured out. They are nocturnal, and

prey upon birds and small animals, and may be considered as forming the transition from the musteline or marten kind to the feline race. The genus has been divided into two sub-genera by naturalists, the first comprising the true civets, those having the pouch large and well marked; the second including the genets, in which there is a simple depression, instead of a pouch. Two species of the first, and eight of the second, are at present known. Their individual peculiarities may be seen in Desmarest's Mammalogy, p. 205. The odoriferous substance which these animals yield, called, from them, civet, when good, is of a clear yellowish or brown color, and of about the consistence of butter: when undiluted, the smell is powerful and very offensive, but, when largely diluted with oil or other materials, it becomes an agreeable perfume. At a time when perfumes were more fashionable than they are at present, civet was very highly esteemed, being, by many, even preferred to musk. Young civet cats were purchased by the drug dealers of Holland, England, &c., as we are informed by Lemery, and brought up tame for the sake of the civet, "so that a cat which is large and gentle may come to be valued at between four and eight pounds sterling." M. Pomet, in his history of drugs, relates that he was presented by a friend with a civet-cat, obtained in China in 1683. "Having kept this creature some days, I perceived that the walls and bars that enclosed it were covered with unctuous moisture, thick, and very brown, of a very strong and disagreeable smell, so that, during all the time I kept this animal, I took care to gather the civet out of the pouch every other day, not without some trouble and hazard, because it put the creature to some pain or apprehension of it; and, having done so for months, I had about the quantity of an ounce and a half; but it is certain, that, if the necessary care had been taken, and the beast could be hindered from rubbing itself, I might have got a great deal more." The medical virtues once attributed to the civet were numerous and various; but, in course of time, it has been entirely laid aside, even as a perfume; so that, at this time, the words of the dramatist, "Give me an ounce of civet, good apothecary, to sweeten my imagination," might be frequently repeated, even in our large cities, with slight probability of obtaining the article.

CIVIC CROWN; among the Romans, the highest military reward, assigned to him who had preserved the life of a citizen. It bore the inscription Ob civem servatum,