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to the bishop Urban, who was concealed among the tombs of the martyrs, and who instructed him in the Christian religion, and baptized him. When he returned to the bride, he saw the protecting angel, who presented them both with crowns of heavenly roses and lilies. Valerian now induced his brother Tubirtus to embrace the Christian faith. The Roman prefect Almachius caused both brothers to be beheaded, as zealous professors of Christianity. Life was to be given to Cecilia if she would sacrifice to the heathen gods. But she remained firm in her belief. Upon this, the tyrant caused her to be shut up in a bath of boiling water, in which she was found, the day after, unhurt. The executioner was then directed to behead her: he inflicted three blows, but was not able to separate the head from the body. She lived for three days, exhorting the faithful and giving alms to the poor. As early as the 5th century, we find a church in Rome dedicated to her. Pope Paschalis, who was very anxious to gather relics, endeavored to discover her body. She appeared to him, as he relates in his letters, while he was sleeping, and pointed out the place of her sepulchre. Paschalis caused the body to be disinterred in 821, and placed it in the church which he rebuilt, where her monument is still to be seen. How Cecilia came to be the patron-saint of music is not agreed. The various opinions, however, seem to be united in this point, that it was either through a misunderstanding, or through an allegorical interpretation of the words above cited from her legend. Her worship, in this character, is very ancient. Among the poets, Chaucer, Dryden in his Alexander's Feast, and Pope, have sung her praises. Raphael, Domenichino, Dolce and Mignard have represented her in celebrated paintings. In the picture of Raphael, she appears as the personification of heavenly devotion. This is, indeed, a heavenly picture.

CECROPS, the founder of Athens, arrived there about 1550 B. C., from Sais, at the mouth of the Nile (this emigration, however, has been questioned by some late writers, e. g. Ottfried Müller), taught the savage inhabitants religion and morals, made them acquainted with the advantages of social life, laid the foundation of the future city of Athens (Cecropia), and built 11 other places, whose inhabitants he instructed in agriculture. He also planted the olive, and consecrated it to Minerva, the patron goddess of Athens. He then introduced into his adopted

country the art of ship-building, and thus laid the foundation of its commerce. He died after a reign of 50 years. His monument was erected in the temple of Minerva; but, to preserve his memory always fresh in their minds, the people consecrated to him the constellation of Aquarius. (See Attica.) The researches which are making among the records of Egyptian history, since the key to their mysterious language has been discovered by the skilfully directed efforts of Young, De Sacy, Zoega, Champollion, and others, will undoubtedly throw great light on the progress of civilization from Egypt to Greece, described in the half mythological, half historical tales of the latter country.

CECROPIA. (See Athens, vol. i. p. 442.) CEDAR; a name given to several species of juniper, to a species of pine, the cedar of Lebanon, and to the cupressus thuyoides. It is an evergreen, and of great durability. The most celebrated kind is the

Cedar-Larch, or Cedar of Lebanon (pinus cedrus, L.), distinguished, by its strong, ramose branches, from all other trees of the same genus. The general character of the shoot, even when the tree is young, is singularly bold and picturesque, and quite peculiar to the species. The tree is a native of the coldest part of the mountains of Libanus, Amanus and Taurus; but it is not now to be found in those places in great numbers. Maundrell, in his journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, in 1696, could reckon only 16 large trees, though many small ones. The forest of Libanus seems never to have recovered from the havoc made by Solomon's forty score thousand hewers. Beautiful specimens of this noble tree are to be seen at Witton park, Zionhouse, &c., in England, where it seems to have been introduced in 1683, and where, as professor Martyn observes, there are probably, at present, more cedars than in Palestine.

White-Cedar (cupressus thuyoides) is a small or middle-sized evergreen, naturally forming an elegant head. Its branches are not pendulous. Its leaves are of a delicate green color. It is a native of North America, China and Cochin China. In the U. States, it occupies large tracts, denominated cedar-swamps. The wood is soft, smooth, of an aromatic smell, and internally of a red color. It is permanent in shape, and very durable, and is esteemed as a material for fences. Large quantities of shingles are made of it. It is a favorite material for wooden wares, or the nicer kinds of coopers' work.

Red or Common Cedar (juniperus Vir

giniana); a native of North America and the West Indies. It is distinguished by its leaves, growing in threes, and being fixed by their base, the younger ones lying upon each other, and the older ones spreading. The trunk is straight, and knotted by small branches. The heartwood is of a bright red, smooth, and moderately soft. This wood is in much request for the outsides of black-lead pencils. On account of its powerful fragrance, it is often used for the bottoms of drawers, because it resists the attacks of insects. Some years ago, it was in great esteem for wainscotting and cabinet-work, but has been much neglected since the introduction of mahogany. The name of savin is, in some places, improperly applied to this tree. Unlike the white cedar, it grows in the driest and most barren soils. For posts of buildings, it is much in request; but it is difficult to obtain it of large size.

CEFALONIA. (See Cephalonia.)
CELENO. (See Harpies.)

CELEBES; an island in the East Indian sea, of an irregular shape, about 500 miles long, and about 200 broad, called, by the natives and Malays, Negree Oran Buggess, and, sometimes, Tanna Macassar; square miles, about 90,000. It is divided into six states or kingdoms, viz., Goa, Bony, Wajoo, Sopin, Selindrin and Mandar. Goa extends a considerable way along the west and south, and contains, besides Macassar, two Dutch forts, Bontyn and Bulo Cumbo. The government is monarchical, and the king is called karuang, and, sometimes, rajah Goa.-Bony, or Pony, is E. of Goa, entirely under the influence of the Dutch, and is governed by a prince, called pajong, who is elected for life by seven orancayos, or nobles.-Wajoo, or Warjoo, or Tuadjoo, is situated N. of Bony, and is governed by a prince elected for life by the orancayos. Sopin is situated in the centre of the island, towards the eastern side, to the E. of Bon. -Selindrin is of small consideration, and is N. W. of Sopin.-Mandar lies on the W. and N. W. coast. The inhabitants are Mohammedans.-The heat of this island would be excessive if it were not moderated by abundant rains. The trees are always green; fruit and flowers grow in all seasons; jasmines, roses, carnations, and other beautiful flowers, grow without culture; orange-trees and citrons shade the ground, with mangoes, bananas, and other fruits. Cotton-trees cover the extensive plains. It produces no spice except pepper. The inhabitants raise a great number of cattle: the oxen are larger than those

of Europe. In the forests are large herds of deer, wild hogs, and a great variety of monkeys, large and ferocious; some with tails, and some without; some walking upon four legs, others upon two. The principal articles which the Dutch obtain from this island are rice, gold, ivory, deals and sandal wood; cotton, camphor, ginger, long pepper and pearls. The Dutch are said to have had 370 towns and villages under their control. Their principal settlement is at Macassar. Lat. 2° N. to 5° 40′ S.; lon. 118° 40′ to 124° 15′ E.

CELESTINE. Two popes of this name are saints. The first was elected pope Nov. 3, 422, and followed Boniface I. There is a decretal letter of this pope extant, directed to the bishops of Vienna and Narbonne, prohibiting the bishops from wearing a dress distinguishing them from the people, and forbidding the choice of strangers for bishops, to the displeasure of their flocks. The consent of the people, of the clergy, and of the magistrate, he says, is necessary to a choice. He died April 6, 432. His letters are preserved in the collection of D. Constant, folio, and in the collection of the councils.

Celestine V was also a saint. He was chosen pope July 5, 1294, before which time he was called Peter of Murrhone. He lived as a hermit on Monte di Magella, in continual fasting and penance, and was entirely unfit for the papal chair, on account of his utter ignorance of business and of the world. He never would have been chosen, had not the papal chair been vacant for 27 months, on account of the cardinals being divided into two parties. When Celestine entered Aquila, he rode on an ass, led by two kings. He soon found the burden of business too heavy, and abdicated his dignity Dec. 13, 1294. Boniface VIII succeeded him, and kept him prisoner till his death, May 19, 1296. The greatest simplicity marks the government of this pope. He is the founder of the Celestines. (q. v.)

CELESTINES (from their founder, pope Celestine V, q. v.), the hermits of St. Damian, a religious order, instituted about the middle of the 13th century, in Italy, followed the rule of St. Benedict (q. v.), wore white garments with black capes and scapularies, and were devoted entirely to a contemplative life. In the beginning of the 18th century, the order was diminished to the number of 96 monasteries in Italy, and 21 in France. This society of gloomy monks appears recently to have become still smaller. In France, it no longer exists.

CELIBACY [written by a Catholic]. One of the sublime ideas of the Catholic church is its veneration of chastity. This places Christianity in the most striking opposi tion to the sensual religions of the pagan world. Whilst the pagans lowered their gods to the human standard, Christianity directed men's views to heaven, and idealized human nature. St. Paul (1 Cor. 7) recommends virginity, without condemning inatrimony. The Catholic church respects matrimonial chastity, but esteems virginity a higher virtue, as a sacrifice of the pleasures of this life to purity of soul, as the victory of the moral nature over the physical. With these sublime views of this virtue, it is not wonderful that it was required of the priests, who officiate in the high mystery of the eucharist. From the time of the apostles, it became a custom in the church for bishops, priests and deacons to renounce the joys of matrimonial love at their consecration, and to devote themselves entirely to the duties of their office. One point only was disputed, whether clergymen were to be merely prohibited from marrying, or whether even those who were married before their consecration, should be required to separate themselves from their wives. At the general council of Nice, several bishops proposed that the bishops, priests and deacons, who had received the holy consecration, should be directed, by an express ordinance, to give up their wives. But Paphnutius, bishop of Upper Thebais, contended that cohabitation with a wife was a state of chastity. It was sufficient, he said, according to the ancient traditions of the church, that clergymen should not be permitted to marry; but he who had been married before his consecration ought by no means to be separated from his lawful wife. As it became the general opinion, that a clergyman could not marry, it soon became the general practice to refuse consecration to married men. By this means, uniformity was effected. As for the bishops, it soon became a matter beyond dispute. After the institution of monachism had become firmly established, and the monks were regarded with veneration, on account of their vow of perpetual chastity, public opinion exacted from the secular clergy the same observance of celibacy. The holy father Epiphanius assures us that, by the ecclesiastical laws, celibacy was commanded, and that, wherever this command was neglected, it was a corruption of the church. The particular council of Elvira commanded all bishops, presbyters, deacons and subdeacons to abstain

from their wives, under penalty of exclusion from the clergy. In the Western church, celibacy was rigorously required. Pope Cyricius, at the end of the 4th century, forbade the clergy to marry, or to cohabit with their wives, if already married. At the same time, the monks received consecration, which increased the conformity between them and the secular clergy still further, and indirectly obliged the latter to observe celibacy. Several popes and particular councils repeated this injunction. The emperor Justinian declared all children of clergymen illegitimate, and incapable of any hereditary succession or inheritance. The council of Tours, in 566, issued a decree against married monks and nuns, declaring that they should be publicly excommunicated, and their marriage formally dissolved. Seculars, deacons and subdeacons, who were found to dwell with their wives, were interdicted the exercise of spiritual functions for the course of a year. In Spain, the bishops were ordered to enforce celibacy upon their abbots, deacons, &c., once a year, in their sermons; for, in that country, many priests, formerly Arians, and newly-converted, refused to give up their wives, conformably to the requisitions of the Catholic church. As in other points, in this, also, the Greek church dissented from the Roman. The (Trullan) council of Constantinople, in 692, in its 13th canon, declares, "Having heard that the Roman church has ordered the priests and deacons to relinquish their lawful wives, we, assembled in this council, hereby decree, that priests and deacons, according to the ancient custom of the church, and the institution of the holy apostles, may live with their wives like the laity. We hereby forbid any one to refuse the consecration of a priest or deacon on account of his being married, and cohabiting with his wife, after he has requested consecration. We will by no means be unjust to marriage, nor separate what God has united." These regulations are still in force in the Greek church; and, while celibacy is required of the bishops and monks; priests and deacons, if married before consecration, are allowed to continue in the state of matrimony. This is not a reason for saying that the Roman church introduced celibacy; she has only retained it, as an old apostolical tradition, to which she has added the rule, not to consecrate married men, unless the wife enter a religious order. As no one has a right to demand to be consecrated a priest, the Roman church has, by this addition, violated no one's right. The West

ern church had new reasons for enjoining celibacy, when the system of benefices began to be organized. At first, the officers of the church lived on the voluntary gifts of the faithful. When the church acquired wealth, lands and tithes, the revenue and estates of all the churches belonging to the diocese of a bishop were considered as one whole, the administration and distribution of which depended on the bishop. But, in the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries, a particular sum was taken from the common stock for each officer, the bishop not excepted. This constitution of the church was similar to that of the state, in which feudatories performed military and other services, in consideration of the usufruct of certain lands. Even the name was the same. The possessions of the feudatories were called benefices, as well as those of the clergy. If the clerical benefices and employments had become hereditary, as was the case with the lay benefices, we should have seen a hereditary ecclesiastical caste, similar to that of the nobility, which has been transmitted to us from the middle ages, as a caste of warriors and civil officers. We should have seen hereditary priests, hereditary bishops, and a hereditary pope. The ruinous consequences, moral and political, which would have resulted from such a state of things, are easily conceived. All the feelings and principles of a pure and divine religion would have disappeared in such an empire of priests. The most absolute despotism would have been established over the nations, and every attempt of the commons to attain a higher stand in political society would have been frustrated. When the canons in Wales afterwards abandoned celibacy, it was soon observed, that they had succeeded in making their benefices hereditary, by intermarriages between their sons and daughters. The fate of Wales would have been that of all the Christian nations of the West, if the marriage of priests had been allowed. Whilst, however, the church persevered in commanding celibacy, she had to struggle with the opposition of a corrupt clergy. The council of Narbonne, in 791, forbade the clergy to have any females living with them, even such as former rules had permitted. The same was ordered by the council of Mentz, 888. By the council of Augsburg, every clergyman was forbidden, under penalty of dismission, either to marry, or to cohabit with his wife, if already married, or to retain female companions who had been introduced under the name of sisters (subintroductas); and the bishop

was authorized, when suspicious women were found in the houses of clergymen, to drive them out with whips, and cut off their hair. In the council of Canterbury, king Edgar himself delivered a speech on the scandalous life of the clergy, whose houses, as he said, might well be considered as brothels. Soon afterwards, a great number of canons and priests were dismissed, whose places were given to monks. In the council at Erham, in 1009, the clergy were directed anew to dismiss their wives. To those who abstained, it was even promised, that they should be treated like nobles by birth. Leo IX ordered that women at Rome, transgressing with priests, should be slaves in the Lateran for life. Adalbert, archbishop of Hamburg, excommunicated the concubines of priests, and had them ignominiously turned out of the city. Pope Victor II dismissed several bishops on account of their irregularities. Notwithstanding all such prohibitions, it appeared impossible to maintain the law of celibacy in force. In 1061, the Lombard bishops, most of whom had concubines, themselves elected Nodolaus, bishop of Parma, afterwards Honorius II, antipope, merely because he did not live in celibacy; and it was, therefore, hoped that he would not insist on the observance of the prohibitory law. Add to this, that most of these clergymen, living with concubines, in violation of canonical laws, obtained their places by simony, and you have a true picture of the church in those days. The necessity was urgent that a reformer of the church should arise. He appeared in Gregory VII, who, like all men of great genius, has a right to be judged in reference to the spirit of his age. In order to reform the corrupted discipline of the church, he was obliged to encounter the simony and licentiousness of the clergy. The former he checked by opposing the emperor's right of investiture, and enforced the laws of celibacy by new regulations. In the council of 1074, at Rome, he ordered that all married clergymen, and all laymen who should confess to them, hear mass of them, or be present at any divine service performed by them, should be excommunicated. When the bishop of Coire began to read this decree to the synod in Mentz, the clergy assailed him with reproaches and blows, so that he narrowly escaped with his life. They declared that they did not pretend to be angels, and would rather give up their priesthood than their wives. Gregory, nevertheless, succeeded, as he was supported by the most ancient and most undoubted canons. After

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Gregory's decease, the church continued in the same course. The prohibitions were repeated, as well as the rules of caution concerning domestic life. Yet transgressions of this hard commandment were very frequent, particularly in the 15th and 16th centuries. In Petrarca's works are many complaints of the licentiousness of the clergy at the pope's court in Avignon, where Petrarca lived for some time. In the accounts of the council of Basle, it is stated that many cardinals present there lived openly with their concubines. In one of the chronicles of the mark of Brandenburg, we are informed that, at a feast, a question arose whether the bishop's concubine should precede the other ladies or not.* The reformation followed. It recognised no sacrificing priests; virginity was esteered no higher than conjugal fidelity; vows of chastity were considered no longer obligatory; and, as the Protestant cler gy were subject either to the state or the religious communities, it was no longer to be feared that they would, by their own authority, make the benefices hereditary. Luther did not at first go the whole length of these changes. He thought the prohibition of matrimony unjust; yet he believed that the monks, who were bound to celibacy by their vows, ought to observe them. He wrote to Spalatin, Aug. 6, 1521, "Our Wittenbergians intend, too, to give wives to the monks; but I shall not suffer myself to have one forced upon me." Bartholomew Bernhardi, a monk, head of the religious establishment of Kemberg, was the first of the clergy who married (in 1521), and most of the Lutheran divines imitated him. When the papal legate, cardinal Campeggio, recommended the punishment of the married priests, this only widened the breach between the old and new church. Luther declared, in 1524, that he was not made of wood and stone, and, in 1525, married the nun, the consecrated virgin, Catharine von Bora. (q. v.) Celibacy was the weak side of the Catholic church, as many divines went over to the reformed church under pretence of a change in their religious sentiments, but, in reality, to be enabled to marry. The reformed princes offered their clergy the alternative, either to marry their concubines, or to put them away. The latter supposed a self-denial, which could not be * In Abbot's Letters from Cuba (Boston, 1829, p. 15), it is stated, that most of the priests on that island have families, and speak of their children without scruple, and will sometimes even reason on the subject, and defend the practice. The case is much the same in a great part of South

America.

VOL. III.

3

expected from one who had lived in concubinage, and a change of religion was the necessary consequence of marriage. Some Catholics wished this weak spot in their church to be removed. At the council of Salzburg, in 1562, the bishops deliberated what measures ought to be proposed at the council of Trent, and resolved to vote for the marriage of the clergy. The duke of Bavaria likewise insisted upon the marriage of the priests. The emperor, the electors, and many other princes, directed their envoys to demand it. The king of France also desired the marriage of the clergy, or, at least, a maturer age for consecration. But the majority at Trent (sess. 24, can. 9) decided for celibacy, observing that God would grant the prayers of those who prayed earnestly for chastity, and would not suffer them to be tempted beyond their strength. The provisions, in regard to celibacy, are as follows:-The clergy of the Greek church, who were married before their consecration, are allowed to continue in a state of matrimony. The priest, however, must abstain from his wife three days before every celebration of the mass. Of the Roman clergy absolute celibacy is required; yet the four lower orders are permitted, on giving up their benefices, to quit the clerical profession, and to marry. But, from the subdeacons upwards, celibacy is commanded absolutely; except that the pope may give permission to retire from the clerical office, and, in consequence, to marry. The penalties for transgressing the rules of celibacy are numerous. The wife must be dismissed, and penance undergone for the offence. The offender is forbidden to perform the ecclesiastical functions belonging to his degree, and cannot receive the higher consecration, as he becomes what is called irregular. Yet, after penance, this irregularity may be removed by dispensation from the bishop. Finally, he becomes excommunicated by the very act of his marriage, and must, on this account, also, have recourse to the bishop, to be received again into the communion. In Germany, by the terms of the peace of Westphalia, a Catholic clergyman who marries loses his benefice and his rank in the church, without loss of reputation, however, if his marriage be only a previous step to his adoption of the Protestant faith. Persons already married can be consecrated as clergymen only on condition of their taking a vow of chastity, to which the wife has given her consent. She must also enter some religious order. The rule of celibacy has been more strict

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