now became the capital of the new kingdom of the Salian Franks. The uncultivated Clovis governed his new subjects with wisdom and moderation: he was particularly desirous to obtain the good will of the clergy. All the cities in Belgia Secunda submitted to him. Paris yielded to the victor in 493, and, in 507, was selected for the capital of his kingdom. In order to obtain assistance in withstanding the powerful Visigoths in Gaul, Clovis married Clotilda, niece of Gundebald, king of Burgundy. This princess, who had been educated in the Catholic faith, was desirous that her husband, also, should embrace it. Her efforts were fruitless, till, on an occasion when he was hard pressed in a battle against the Allemanni, near Zülpich (496), Clovis called on the God of Clotilda and the Christians. Victory declared in his favor; and the part of the territory of the Allemanni lying on the Upper Rhine submitted to the king of the Franks. The victor's conversion was now an easy matter for the eloquent St. Remigius, archbishop of Rheims. Clovis was solemnly baptized at Rheims, December 25, 496, with several thousand Franks, men and women. St. Remigius, at the same time, anointed him. The cities of Armorica (Bretagne) then submitted to his sceptre, in 497. There now remained in Gaul only two independent powers besides the Franks, viz. the Burgundians and Visigoths. The former had two kings, Godegisele and Gundebald. Clovis made an attack upon the latter, whose territories extended from the Vosges to the Alps and the sea-coast of Marseilles. Gundebald, deserted by the faithless Godegisele, was routed near Dijon, compelled to surrender Lyons and Vienne to the victorious Clovis, and to flee to Avignon, where he concluded a peace. Clovis returned home loaded with spoils. Gundebald afterwards violated the treaty; but Clovis, fearing the Goths, entered into a new alliance with him. Hostilities soon broke out between Alaric, king of the Goths, and Clovis. In the battle near Poictiers, between the rivers Vonne and Clouére, the latter gained a complete victory, slaying his enemy with his own hand, and conquered Aquitania. After this conquest, Clovis received the honor of the consulship from the emperor Anastasius. The king of the Franks, having his head adorned with a diadem, appeared in the church of St. Martin of Tours, clad in the tunic and purple robe, and was saluted by the people as consul and Augustus. He strengthened his authority, while

he tarnished his glory, by murders and cruelties. He died Nov. 26, 511, having reigned 30 years. His four sons divided his dominions between them. 25 years later, the kingdom of Burgundy came under the power of the Franks, the Ostrogoths were obliged to yield to them Arles and Marseilles, and Justinian conceded to them the sovereignty of Gaul. In the last year of his reign, Clovis had called a council at Orleans, from which are dated the peculiar privileges claimed by the kings of France in opposition to the pope.

CLUB; a society which meets on certain times at certain places, for various purposes; for instance, chess clubs, racing clubs, &c. The political clubs originated in England, and thence passed to France and to other countries. They were prohibited by a law of the German empire, made in 1793. The French clubs, during the revolution, must be considered as its focus. An accurate acquaintance with their history is indispensable for the understanding of a great part of the revolution. They were connected and regularly organized, and their resolutions were published. In the minuteness of their ramification throughout the country, they resembled the corresponding committees in the American colonies before the American revolution. These French clubs destroyed the constitution of 1795. They were afterwards prohibited. (See Jacobin and France.)

CLUE of a sail (in French, point) is the lower corner; and hence clue-garnets (cargues-point, Fr.) are a sort of tackles fastened to the clues of the mainsail and foresail, to truss them up to the yard, which is usually termed clucing-up the sails. Clue-lines are used for the same purpose as clue-garnets, only that the latter are confined to the courses, whilst the clue-lines are common to all the squaresails.

CLUNY; a town of France, in the Saône-and-Loire, lying between two mountains, on the Grône; 9 miles N. W. Maçon, 21 miles S. Châlons-sur-Saône; population, 3400. Here was a Benedictine abbey, founded by William, duke of Aquitaine, at one time the most celebrated in France. Its funds were vast, and its edifices had the appearance of a well built city. The church is one of the largest in France. The town contains 3 parishes. (See Abelard.)

CLYDE (anciently Glota); a river in Scot land, which rises in the south part of Lan erkshire, passes by Lanerk, Hamilton, Glasgow, Renfrew, Dumbarton, &c., and

forms the arm of the sea called the Frith of Clyde, at the southern extremity of the island of Bute. It is 70 miles long, and becomes navigable at Glasgow. It has romantic falls, particularly at Corrahouse and Stonebyres, of 84 and 80 feet perpendicular.

CLYMER, George, one of the signers of the declaration of independence, was born in Philadelphia in 1739, of a respectable family. His father emigrated from Bristol, England. The death of his parents left George an orphan at the age of 7 years; but he was well taken care of by his uncle, William Coleman, who bequeathed to him the principal part of his fortune. Af ter the completion of his studies, young Clymer entered into his uncle's countinghouse, though his inclination for cultivating his mind was much greater than for mercantile pursuits. When discontent had been excited in the colonies by the arbitrary acts of the British parliament, he was among the first in Pennsylvania to raise his voice in opposition, and was named by a meeting held in Philadelphia, Oct. 16, 1773, chairman of a committee appointed to demand of the commissioners for selling the tea which had been imported into America, on account of the East India company, their resignation of the office. The demand was complied with. Mr. Clymer was afterwards chosen a member of the council of safety, when the increasing troubles rendered such a body necessary. In 1775, he was appointed one of the first continental treasurers, but he resigned his office shortly after his first election to congress, in Aug., 1776. His zeal in the cause of his country was displayed by subscribing, himself, as well as by encouraging the subscriptions of others, to the loan opened for the purpose of rendering more effective the opposition to the measures of the British; and also by the disinterested manner in which he exchanged all his specie for continental currency. In July, 1776, he was chosen, together with doctor Benjamin Rush, James Wilson, George Ross and George Taylor, esquires, to supply the vacancy in congress occasioned by the resignation of the members of the Pennsylvania delegation, who had refused their assent to the declaration of independence. The new members were not present when the instrument was agreed upon, but they all affixed to it their signatures. In the autumn of 1777, his house in Chester county, in which his family resided, was plundered by a band of British soldiers, his property greatly damaged, and his wife and children con

strained to fly for safety. His services in the cause of liberty seemed, indeed, to have rendered him peculiarly obnoxious to the British; for, when they took possession of Philadelphia, a numerous body proceeded to tear down the house of his aunt, supposing it to be his, and only desisted when informed of their mistake. In the year 1780, Mr. Clymer was a member of an association which made an offer to congress of establishing a bank for the sole purpose of facilitating the transportation of a supply of 3,000,000 of rations and 300 hogsheads of rum to the army, which was on the point of disbanding, in consequence of its distressed condition. Congress received the offer, and pledged the faith of the U. States to the subscribers to the bank for their full indemnity, and deposited in it, as well for that purpose as in support of its credit, bills for £150,000 sterling, on the American ministers in Europe. Mr. Clymer was one of the gentlemen selected to preside over the institution, the good effects of which were long felt. In Nov., 1780, Mr. Clymer was again elected to congress, and strongly advocated there the establishment of a national bank. He was chosen, in May, 1782, to repair, with Mr. Rutledge, to the Southern States, and make such representations as were best adapted to procure from them their quotas for the purposes of the war, which were very remissly furnished. In the autumn of 1784, during which year party spirit had raged with great violence in Pennsylvania, he was elected to the legislature of that state, to assist in opposing the constitutionalists, who were so termed in consequence of their upholding the old constitution, which was justly deemed deficient. Pennsylvania is greatly indebted to his exertions for the amelioration of her penal code, which had previously been of so sanguinary a nature as to produce extreme and almost universal discontent. Mr. Clymer was also a member of the convention which framed the present constitution of the federal government, and was elected to the first congress which met when it was about to be carried into operation. After serving throughout the term, he declined a reelection. In 1781, a bill having been passed in congress, imposing a duty on spirits distilled within the U. States, he was placed at the head of the excise department, in the state of Pennsylvania. In the year 1796, he was appointed, together with colonel Hawkins and colonel Pickens, to negotiate a treaty with the Cherokee and Creek Indians of Georgia. He subsequently

became the first president of the Philadelphia bank, and of the academy of arts. He died Jan. 23, 1813, in the 74th year of his age, at Morrisville, Bucks county, Pennsylvania.

CLYTEMNESTRA; daughter of king Tyndarus and Leda, and twin-sister of Helen. She bore her husband, Agamemnon, two daughters, Iphigenia and Electra, and one son, Orestes. During the absence of Agamemnon, in the war against Troy, she bestowed her favors on Ægisthus, and, in connexion with him, murdered Agamemnon on his return from Troy, and, together with her paramour, governed Mycene for seven years. Orestes killed them both. (See Agamemnon and Orestes.)

CNIDUS, or GNIDUS; a town in Caria, a province of Asia Minor, and a favorite place with Venus, who was, therefore, surnamed the Guidian goddess. She had there three temples. The first, probably erected by the Lacedæmonian Dorians, was called the temple of Venus Doris. The second was consecrated to her under the name of Venus Acraa. The third, called the temple of the Gridian Venus, and, by the inhabitants, the temple of Venus Euplæa, contained Praxiteles' marble statue of the goddess, one of the masterpieces of art. This was afterwards removed to Constantinople, where it perished in a conflagration, in 1461.

COACH. The coach is distinguished from other vehicles chiefly as being a covered box, hung on leathers. In the most ancient times, kings and princes had particular vehicles which they used on solemn occasions, but these were not covered. We find in the Bible, that such carriages were used in Egypt in the time of Joseph. Covered wagons also appear to be of great antiquity; for, even in Moses' time, such wagons were used for carrying loads, and the wandering Scythians are said to have had wagons covered with leather, to protect them from the weather: so, likewise, had the Spartans, who called these carriages kanathron. The seat of the coachman is also a very ancient invention of Oxylus, an Etolian who took possession of the kingdom of Elis 1100 years B. C. The Romans had both open and covered carriages, the latter being used to transport sick soldiers and aged people. The covered carriage, called carruca, first mentioned by Pliny, was invented later. It was adorned with ivory, brass, and, finally, with gold and silver, and used only to convey magistrates, and distinguished individuals of both sexes. The carruca were drawn by mules. Covered carriages

were therefore known to the ancients; but they were not acquainted with coaches, or carriages suspended on leathers. These are said to have been invented in Hungary, and their name, which, in the language of that country, signifies covered, to be also of Hungarian origin. Others derive the German name of the coach, Kutsche, from Gutsche, which signified, formerly, a bed; or from Kitsee or Kutsee, considering this as the place where the vehicle was invented. Others think that coaches were invented in France. Charles V is said to have used such a conveyance, when afflicted with the gout, and to have slept in it. The invention of coaches in Hungary is said to have taken place in 1457; but Isabella, the wife of Charles VI of France, is said to have made her entrance into Paris, in 1405, in a covered carriage, suspended on leathers. As, at first, none but ladies used these carriages in France, they were called, from this circumstance, chariots da merets. Under Francis I, the construction of coaches was much improved. They were called carrosses; and the openings were furnished with leather curtains. The first man who made use of one of these carriages was Raimond de Laval, a cavalier of the court of Francis I, who was so large, that no horse could carry him. His coach, and that of the celebrated Diana of Poitiers, duchess of Valentinois (q. v.), were made about 1540, and were the first carriages on springs in Paris; and, 10 years after, there were not more than three such vehicles in that city. Under Henry III (1574-89), the fourth coach was introduced. This was kept by a private person. Before that time, they were considered as belonging exclusively to the royal family, or to very distinguished officers. Henry IV, who is known to have been murdered in a coach, kept but one carriage for himself and his wife, as appears from a letter, in which he tells a friend, as an excuse for his absence, that his wife was using the coach. The marshal Bassompierre, in 1599, brought the first coach with glass windows from Italy into France. In 1658, there were 520 coaches in Paris, and the number went on continually increasing. In Germany, the emperors and princes used coaches as early as the 15th century. The emperor Frederic III, for instance, went in one to Frankfort in 1474. In 1509, the wife of the elector Joachim I of Brandenburg had a gilded coach, and 12 others ornamented with crimson. Coaches are said to have been introduced into Spain in 1546, and into Sweden in the last half of the 16th centu

ry. The oldest carriages used by the ladies in England were called whirlicotes. The mother of king Richard II, who accompanied him in his flight (1360), rode in a carriage of this sort. But coaches, properly so called, were first introduced into England from Germany or France, in 1580, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, and the first seen in public belonged to Henry, earl of Arundel. In 1601, the year before the queen's death, an act was passed to prevent men from riding in coaches, as being effeminate; but they were in common use, in London, about the year 1605. Twenty years afterwards, hackney-coaches were introduced. They were prohibited in 1635, and, in 1637, only 50 hackney-coachmen were licensed. The number of coaches was increased by degrees, and, in 1770, as many as 1000 were licensed. The duty on coaches in England in 1778, the number then kept being 23,000, amounted to £117,000. The total duty on coaches in England, in 1785, was £154,988; in Scotland, only £9000. The French invented the post-chaise, the use of which was brought into England by Tull, the well-known writer on husbandry. In Switzerland, coaches were a rarity as late as 1650.-Philadelphia (q. v.) surpasses all other places in America in the manufacture of coaches. The manufacture of elegant coaches is a proof of much wealth and mechanical skill in a place; many different artists being employed in their construction, who become skilful only when the demand for their work is considerable. A very large sort of coaches, called omnibus, has lately come into use in Paris, and still later in London. They serve as means of communication between different parts of the city, and contain a large number of passengers, with quantities of newspapers, furniture, &c. The fare at Paris is very cheap. Quite recently, a stage-coach began to run from Paris to Orleans, containing 60 passengers.

COAHUILA Y TEXAS; a state or province of Mexico, bounded E. by Tamaulipas, S. by New Leon, S. W. by Durango, W. by Chihuahua. Its northern boundary and extent are not well defined. It is watered by the Rio del Norte and its branches. The chief towns are Montelovez and Saltillo.

burn with a bright flame; those in which the carbon predominates burn less vividly. Numerous varieties of coal exist, deriving distinctions partly from their state of aggregation, but principally from the proportions of their bitumen and carbon. Excepting the anthracite, they may be treated of under the two divisions of black coals and brown coals.-The color of brown coal, as its name imports, is brown: it possesses a ligneous structure, or consists of earthy particles. The color of black coal is black, not inclining to brown, and it does not possess the structure of wood.-The varieties of brown coal are the following:bituminous wood, which presents a ligneous texture, and very seldom any thing like conchoidal fracture, and is without lustre ; earthy coal, consisting of loose, friable particles; moor coal, distinguished by the want of ligneous structure, by the property of bursting and splitting into angular fragments, when removed from its original repository, and the low degree of lustre upon its imperfect conchoidal fracture; common brown coal, which, though it still shows traces of ligneous texture, is of a more firm consistency than the rest of the varieties, and possesses higher degrees of lustre upon its more perfect conchoidal fracture. Some varieties of black coal immediately join those of brown coal. They are, pitch coal, of a velvet-black color, generally inclining to brown, strong lustre, and presenting, in every direction, a large and perfect conchoidal fracture; slate coal, possessing a more or less coarse, slaty structure, which, however, seems to be rather a kind of lamellar composition than real fracture; foliated coal, resembling it, only the lamina are thinner; and coarse coal in like manner, only the component particles are smaller, and approach to a granular appearance; cannel coal, without visible composition, and having a flat, conchoidal fracture in every direction, with but little lustre, by which it is distinguished from pitch coal. All these kinds are joined by numerous transitions, so that it often becomes doubtful to which of them we should ascribe certain specimens, though they undoubtedly are members of this species.-As the preceding varieties of coal consist of variable proportions of bitumen and carbon, they, of course, must vary in their inflammability. Several varieties become soft, and others coke, when kindled, or, in other words, allow of the separation of the bituminous from the carbonaceous part. We perceive this separation in its combustion in a common fire; the coal, when kindled, swelling and soft

ening, exhaling a kind of bitumen, and burning with smoke and light; while, after a certain period, these appearances cease, and it burns only with a red light. The separation is effected more completely by the application of heat in close vessels: the bitumen is melted out, and there is disengaged ammonia, partly in the state of carbonate with empyreumatic oil, and the coal gas (a variety of carbureted hydrogen), often mixed with carbonic acid and sulphureted hydrogen, the carbonaceous matter being, in a great measure, left, forming coke.-The decomposition of coal is carried on, on a large scale, with a view to collect the products; the gas being used to afford an artificial light, which is clear, steady, easily regulated, and economical; the bituminous matter, or mineral tar, being applied to the uses for which vegetable tar and pitch are employed, and the coked coal being used in the smelting of metallic ores, and for various other purposes, where an elevated and steady temperature is needed.-Coal, excluding anthracite, has been supposed to be of vegetable origin. There is a remarkable graduation from bituminated wood to perfect coal. In some varieties, the structure, and even the remains, of plants are apparent, and its chemical composition agrees with that of vegetable matter. It is difficult to determine, however, in what manner it has been formed, or by what operations the vegetable matter, from which it has originated, has been so far modified, as to have assumed the properties under which it exists. And there are many geologists who regard it, in common with anthracite, as an original mineral deposit.-The varieties called slate coal, foliated coal, coarse coal, cannel coal, and pitch coal, occur chiefly in the coal formation; some varieties of pitch coal, also the moor coal, bituminous wood, and common brown coal, are met with in the formations above the chalk; the earthy coal, and some varieties of bituminous wood and common brown coal, are often included in diluvial and alluvial detritus. The coal seams alternate with beds of slaty clay and common clay, sandstone, limestone, sand, &c. They are often associated with vegetable organic remains, in slaty clay; sometimes, also, with shells, and having iron pyrites intermixed with them. Bituminous coal is so universally distributed, that it is unnecessary to attempt the enumeration of its localities. It abounds, in the U. States, in Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, and the Western States generally.

COALITION, in chemistry; the reunion or combination of parts which had before

been separated. In the beginning of the French revolution, the French authors used this expression, by way of contempt, to denote the confederation of several powers against France; the word alliance appearing to them, perhaps, too noble for the object. From that time, the word has been received into diplomatic language; but there is generally some idea of reproach connected with the use of it. The diplomatists of the continent of Europe have made this distinction between alliance and coalition, that the former is more general, the latter is directed against a particular enemy, for a distinct object. The first coalition against France was concluded between Austria and Prussia for the preservation of the constitution of the German empire, and for checking the progress of the French revolution (7th of Feb., 1792). The separate peace with Prussia, concluded at Bâle (5th of April, 1795), and the line of demarcation for the north of Germany, were the first steps to the dissolution of the German empire. The next coalition is that of 1793. Germany declared war (22d of March), and was afterwards joined by Portugal, Naples, Tuscany, and the pope. In addition to this, a treaty of alliance was concluded at London, between Great Britain and Russia. The third is the triple alliance entered into at St. Petersburg, by Russia, Austria and Great Britain (28th of Sept., 1795), at a time when several princes of the empire withdrew their troops. This coalition was dissolved by the peace of Campo-Formio, between Austria and France, in which, at the same time, a general congress for the conclusion of peace with the whole empire was appointed at Rastadt (9th of Dec., 1797, to April, 1799). The negotiations which took place here were declared null by Austria; for, during them, a new coalition (the fourth) had been formed between Russia, the Porte (23d of Dec., 1798) and England. Austria and Naples, also, were induced to join it. Separate treaties of peace dissolved it again, viz. the peace of Lunéville with Austria and Germany (9th of Feb., 1801), that of Florence with Naples (28th of March, 1801), that of Paris with Russia (8th of Oct., 1801), of Paris with the Porte (9th of Oct.), and of Amiens with Great Britain (25th of March, 1802). Of all these states, Great Britain first declared war against France (18th of April, 1803), and, in April, 1805, new negotiations were begun between England, Russia, Austria and Prussia, for another coalition (the fifth) against France. At Peters burg, the two first powers contracted to